Saturday, August 31, 2019

Chinese Views on Death and Dying Essay

Chinese religion and strict cultural beliefs are inseparable from the death rites performed. Many different names for death are scattered throughout Chinese history, including an ideogram that depicts a person kneeling in front of their ancestor’s bones 1. In Chinese culture, death rites are intricate and well thought out works on preparing one for the afterlife and rebirth. Chinese funeral rites have strict guidelines as to where the rites are to be performed, how the rites are performed (ritual bathing of the corpse), the dress of the attendees and the dead, the transfer of material goods on Earth to the dead, acknowledgement of the deceased and the actual burial of the body. All these sacred rites are performed by specialists (usually priests or otherwise) who are paid by the deceased’s family members. Death rituals carry on long after the burial of the body in terms of grieving for the dead. These rites include returning to the burial site on specific dates to mourn, perform yuan-fen (a symbolic act in which the burial site is rounded off with dirt to give it a nice and proper shape) and burning of incense and earthly offerings 2. Attitudes and beliefs on death and the afterlife are quite the same among the Chinese people of the late Imperial Chinese culture and the Chinese culture of today. The continuing traditions of the ritualistic burials sheds light on one way a society can be linked culturally. 1. T.C. Lai â€Å"To The Yellow Springs: The Chinese View of Death† (17) Hong Kong: Joint Publbishing Co. and Kelly & Walsh, 1983 2. Watson, James L. and Evelyn L. Rawski â€Å"Death Ritual in Late Imperial and Modern China† (12-15) Berklely: University of California Press, 1988 Different cultures harbor different views on death and dying, and it is important to understand the significance of these contrasting elements of other cultures and our own. The Chinese cultures do not see death as something shy away from, but rather it is a part of life that is revered. Death is such a scared step that it embodies many different characters for definition such as ni 3a and qi shi 3b. The transition from being a mortal and alive and being deceased is very important to the Chinese. The Chinese  have a strict set of funeral rites that must be followed completely in order for the transition between this world and the world after death to be smooth- the rites are so embedded in culture and rich with rules that there is even a set time for certain levels of grievances. Death rites are often followed by a series of mourning sessions over the year. However, death rituals for those higher up in society, of course, differ from those of the common man. James L. Watson states that â€Å"To be Chinese is to understand, and accept the view, that there is a correct way to perform rites associated with the life-cycle, the most important being weddings and funerals. By following accepted ritual routines ordinary citizens participated in the process of cultural unification.† 4 and with this in mind we can begin to understand the reason why the Chinese abode by such rigid structure for the burial of a deceased person. The structure that was imposed on the people of China was embraced because it brought everyone together. 3. T.C. Lai â€Å"To the Yellow Springs: The Chinese View of Death† (18) Hong Kong: Joint Publbishing Co. and Kelly & Walsh, 1983 4. Quote from: Watson, James L. â€Å"Death Ritual in Late Imperial and Modern China† The Structure of Chinese Funerary Rites: Elementary Forms, Ritual Sequence, and the Primacy of Performance (3) The sequence in which the ritual is performed is laid out perfectly and begins with public notification that a death has occurred. As soon as a death has occurred women in the presence of the death must announce the death by wailing at the top of her lungs, such wailings, as documented by Watson were not voluntary. Along with the informal announcement of death was a formal one where white banners and blue lanterns are placed around the abode and along the doorway. Some of the formal notices were voluntary in part of China, whereas in some parts they were also mandatory. Not much unlike Western culture, different colors hint to a time of mourning. Instead of wearing black (like in Western cultures), those who are mourning  the deceased in China are seen wearing white clothes, shoes and cloaks that are usually made out of sackcloth or hemp. Although mourning colors differ in different parts of China, white is the universal color of mourning for the Chinese. These mourning clothes are usually ragged, unbleached, unhemmed and white. 5 The corpse must go through a series of cleansings and blessings before it is allowed to be buried. A ritualized bathing of the corpse is required before it goes on to the next step in the rites. In south China the water is not gathered by the family themselves, but rather, bought from a deity of a sacred well. This particular rite is called mai-shui or roughly translated, â€Å"buying water†. There are 5. Jones, Constance R.I.P. The Complete Book Of Death And Dying New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1997 (Pg. 163)  several ways the corpse is cleansed–from scrubbing with the water bought, or a  gentle dab on the forehead with the sacred water. Along with the cleaning is the  donning of new clothes on the corpse. The next step in the funerary rites would be the transfer of material goods to the dead. Things like paper clothes, cardboard houses, furniture and servants and other things the dead might need in the afterlife would be transferred into the world of the dead by burning them in a big pot. Food was presented as an offering to the deceased and afterwards, the mourners would partake in the food. 6 Food is an integral part of Chinese tradition and culture, especially with the ritualized steps of burial. Stuart E. Thompson says that, â€Å"To be Chinese is to perform Chinese ritual and vice-versa; to be Chinese is also to eat Chinese-style food with Chinese-style implements.† It is explained that the  food used in the rites are to transform a corpse into an ancestor. Food is a centerpiece in the ritual more than once. 1. Foods are presented as soon as the person dies and once again during the ceremonial coffining of the body. Rice is a crucial part of Chinese diet and rice balls and other food products (roast pork and such) are usually placed on top of his/her coffin to accompany the dead on their journey. Parts of the ceremony are used to separate the living from the dead, for instance, the breaking of bowls to break the ties between the dead and his/her descendants. After the breaking of the bowls, the 6. Watson, James L. â€Å"The Structure of Chinese Funerary Rites† from Death Ritual in Late Imperial and Modern China. (12-13)  family members must insure that the deceased does not return upset, so  the belongings of the deceased must be symbolically distributed among his/her heirs using the food on top of the coffin. 2. After the coffining of the body, food is presented to the coffin at least twice a day by the daughter-in-law of the deceased. These offerings are made until the coffin is buried. Sometimes, the offerings continue even after burial. 3. A farewell feast is giving either the day before, or on the day of the burial. This tradition is to ensure that transformation from being deceased into an ancestor is complete. Prized offerings consist of either pig heads or whole pigs along with rice. Along with the farewell feast for the deceased, some offerings are given to hungry ghosts whom would usually steal from the deceased on his/her journey. 4. Wine, usually rice wine, is poured into three cups for the dead on the burial grounds. This is the last rite before the body passes on to become an ancestor. 5. Food is presented again after the burial when everyone returns to the home where the ceremony began. Ancestral tablets (explained further in this paper) are then set on specially built alters or mantles. (My own family has the ashes of the deceased on a mantle in which food is presented to them at every meal) 7 7. Thompson, Stuart E. â€Å"Death, Food, And Fertility† from Death Ritual in the Late Imperial and Modern China. (75-76) Soul tablets are made for the deceased (except for children and unknown people) as a symbol of a part of their soul. These soul tablets are made by ritual specialists and are placed either on an alter (of those who are married) or in temples, specified institutions or covenants for a fee (for unwed women). These tablets were very important to the rites of the dead. A written Chinese name was required for these tablet, hence the reason why unknown strangers could not receive one. The dead were not recognized by any materialistic idol or pictures, but only by their written Chinese name. Music was also an integral part of the burial sequence. There were two different kinds of sounds that were used to either ward off evil spirits or aid the passing of the soul. High-pitched piping and drumming were the two common sounds heard during burial rites. These sounds are usually played during transitions in the ritual, usually when physical movement of the corpse is taking place. Music is also played during the sealing of the corpse. The Chinese found that this is the most important feature of all the different acts. The coffins made of wood have been with the Chinese since the Neolithic. Again, paid specialists are the ones who make sure the corpse is stationary within the coffin. They secure the lid on with nails and caulking compounds to be sure that the coffin is airtight. The nailing of the coffin is the most important part of the whole ritual. The hammering is usually done by the main mourner or by an invited guest who holds a high social status. The final sequence is the removal of the coffin from the village. However, this  last rite does not need to be performed immediately. It is actually a sign of respect for the  coffin to be kept close to the family over a long period of time. But of course, there comes a time when the coffin must leave the hands of the living. 8 Those who are relatively wealthy will be able to carry out every burial rite with the assistance of a burial specialist. Watson explains that, â€Å"The ethnographic evidence suggests that, among the Cantonese, there is a hierarchy of specialists ranked according to the relative exposure to the pollution of death. This hierarchy also reflects the standards of skill, training, and literacy required to carry out ritual tasks† (Death Ritual in Late Imperial and Modern China. 109) The highest ranking specialist is the Geomancer (a person who has the ability to foretell the future by using signs from the earth) whose work demands high levels of skill and literacy. Next in line are priests who receive their knowledge through years of apprenticeship. Priests are moderately literate in order to perform mortuary rites. Those who rank below priests are usually illiterate, mainly because their line of work usually does not require any reading or skill. These specialists range from pipers, nuns, musicians, and overall helpers. There are also helpers who rank even lower than those below priests and these are the corpse handlers. Corpse handlers’ tasks involve washing the corpse, dressing the corpse and arranging the corpse in the coffin, and finally carrying the coffin to its burial ground, digging the grave, and disposing items that are directly associated with the corpse 9. Corpse handlers are of the lowest ranking ritual specialists because they are deemed as highly polluted by death and are set apart from the other specialists. 8. Watson, James L. Death Rituals in Late Imperial and Modern China (12-15) 9. Watson, James L. â€Å"Funeral Specialists in Cantonese Society: Pollution, Performance, and Social Hierarchy† Death Ritual in Late Imperial and Modern China (109-110) Along with the ritual sequence come the many names for death. As  explained before, the earliest concept of death was characterized as a person kneeling before his ancestor’s bones. The deaths of people of different ranks in society are characterized differently from one another. The death of sovereign is called beng ,which comes from the sound of a large building collapsing. The death of a prince is called hong (the sound of something breaking), a government minister’s death is called cu (â€Å"the end†), and that of an official is called bu lu (meaning: ending the enjoyment of emolument), however, the death of a common person is less extravagant–si simply means â€Å"to expire†. Just like the many characters there are for the people who pass away, there are many characters for the ways people can die, for example, death from old age is called shou zhong which translates to â€Å"the termination of longevity†, which death while young is ca lled yao which means â€Å"breaking in mid-journey†. 10 With the different ways they have to describe death in one or two words, it is hard not to notice that the Chinese are very much interested in the process of death. In China, the spring time is time for purification and regeneration. The Spring Festival is held every spring and it is very important to the comfort of the dead. During the festival, descendants will visit graves of their ancestors to honor  and care for the burial ground and body it incases. Prayers and sacrifices are made to the dead during that time and the act of â€Å"saluting the tomb† is practiced. 10. Text adapted from To the Yellow Springs: The Chinese View of Death by T.C. Lai. Hong Kong: Joint Publishing Co. and Kelly & Walsh. (1983) (Text 18) â€Å"Saluting the tomb† is an act where red-colored rice and peeled eggs, which are symbolic of the saying â€Å"old gives way to the new†, are placed on top of the burial ground. November is the month that harbors Ghost Day celebrations. Ghost day is a special day where people burn paper money as  offerings to their ancestors. Another day of celebration is the Winter Dress Festival where paper clothes and such are burned for their ancestors, again this holiday is celebrated in October and November 11. These celebrations do not directly pertain to spirits who are in a state of unrest. In China a ghost, a male ghost is called kuei while the female is called yao, is a spirit whose death was either very unusual or very violent criminal act. The Chinese are extremely superstitious. It is said that ghosts linger relatively close to the location of their death. For example, Ghosts of thieves would sometimes be seen close to the area of their execution. Another common superstition (one that was also taught to me) was that if a pregnant woman were to walk past a spot where a person has died, that spirit would attempt to expel the child’s soul and replace it with its own to be reborn 12. Anniversary ghosts also exist in Chinese culture. Anniversary ghosts are essentially ghosts who appear on the anniversary of their death to re-enact the scene. The only way this can be stopped is if someone dies in its place on that same day, the same way, in the same spot so that the soul that is tr apped and doomed to repeat its painful death will be released. Unfortunately, the person who has died in their place will be doomed to repeat his 11. Jones, Constance The Complete Book of Death and Dying (135) 12. Jones, Constance The Complete Book of Death and Dying (129)  or her death, unless a specialist performs a ritual to set the spirit free. One can already tell that the Chinese have great respect for the dead and their ancestors. Chinese attitudes and beliefs about death are influenced by Buddhism, Taoism and Confucianism 13. â€Å"If one does not know life,  how can he begin to know death.† Confucius (Fig. 1) The Chinese honors the dead regularly by presenting offerings and prayers since they believe that these practices push forth the sense that death occurs all the time and that it should be accepted into daily life. 13. Jones, Constance R.I.P. The Complete Book of Death and Dying (12) 14. Figure 1 is from T.C. Lai To The Yellow Springs (14) NOTE! Blank Spaces are for images taken from books. Be sure to add corresponding images to this essay.

Friday, August 30, 2019

Filipino People and Exposition Grounds Rizal Essay

Paris in the spring of 1889 was bursting with gaiety(joy) and excitement because of the universal exposition. Thousands of visitors from all corner of the world crowded every hotel, inn, and boarding house . every -where in the metropolis the hotel rate in London , was caught in the whirl of gay Parisian life . despite the social parties and the glittering light of the city , he continued his fruitful artistic , literary , and patriotic labor(makabayang pag gawa), he published his annotated(comment) edition of Morgam’s success; founded three Filipino societies, the kidlat club, the indios bravos , and the R. D. L. M. ; AND wrote por telefono , satire against fr. salvador font. Difficulty of finding quarters. on march 1889 , it was extremely difficult For a visitor to find living quarters in Paris the approaching(papalapit) universal exposition of 1889 which was scheduled to open on May 16 ,1889 so the all hotel accommodations were taken . to the great disgust(pagkainis) of Rizal ,the cost of living spiralled high because the French land lords, taking advantage of great demand for living quarters, raised the rent of their rooms. For a short time, Rizal lived in the house of his friends valentine ventura, at No. 45 rue maubeuge, where he polished his annotated edition of morga’s book. He transferred his residence several time moving in the hotel to another from one boarding house to another. Finally, he lived in a little room, together with two other Filipinos – Capitan Justo Trinidad former gobernadorcillo of Santa Ana, Manila, and a refugee(takas) from Spanish tyranny, and Jose Albert, a young student from Manila. Life in Paris. Although life in Paris was gay(joyful), with sparkling merriment and joyous social parties, Rizal continued to be busy in his serious pursuits(pagtugis/trabaho). However were too precious for him to waste. He spent them frugally(matipid) and fruitfully. He used most of his time in the reading room of the Bibliotheque Nationale (National Library) checking up his historical annotations on Morgan’s book, in his living quarters writing letters to his family and friends, in the gymnasium for his daily physical exercises, and visiting his friends. In his spare hours(ekstrang oras), Rizal used to dine at the homes of his friends, such as the Pardo de Taveras, the Venturas, the Bousteads the Lunas, etc. He was a good friend of the three Pardo de Taveras – Dr. Trinidad H. Pardo de Tavera, physician by vocation and philologist by avocation and an artist and sculptor by avocation, and Paz de Tavera, wife of Juan Luna. These Pardo de Taveras were the children of Don Joaquin Pardo de Tavera, an exile(pagpapatapos) of 1872 who escaped from the Marianas and lived in France. On June 24, 1889, a baby girl was born to Juan Luna and Paz Pardo e Tavera. She was their second child, the first was a boy named Andres, whose pet name was Luling. Her baptismal godfather (ninong) was Rizal, who choose her named â€Å"Maria de la Paz, Blanca, Laureana, Hermenegilda Juana Luna y Pardo de Tavera. † In his letter to his family in Calamba, Rizal gave an interesting account of his life in Paris. One of these letters (dated May 16, 1889) related. My daily life in Paris in spent in the following manner: one or two hours in the gymnasium and I fencing, three or four hours in the library, the rest I use up in writing and visiting friends. . . Every other night from 8:00 to 11:00 we meet in a cafe where we play chess. On Saturdays I am invited to eat at Luna’s house, on Sundays at Mrs. Juliana’s and on Friday, I visit the family of Boustead (also a Filipino ) where sometimes I take tea. † In another litter to his family, written on September 21, 1889. He said, â€Å" We filipino gather four times a week and we sing the kundiman. We eat sotanghon, adobo, etc. , on Wednesday in the house of Dona Tula, on Thursday in the house of hidalgo, on friday in the house of madam Boustead, on saturday in the house of luna, on Sunday in the house of Dona Juliana. † Rizal and Paris exposition of 1889. Like any ordinary Filipino tourist in a foreign land Rizal was fascinated(nabighani) by the universal Exposition of Parish which opened on May 6, 1889. The greatest attraction of this exposition was the Eiffel Tower, 984 feet high, which was built by Alexander Eiffel, celebrated French engineer. Rizal and his friends attended the opening ceremonies and saw the cutting of the ribbon by President Sadi Carnotof the Third French Republic. Paris was jammed with thousands of tourist coming from all parts of the world. Daily the Exposition drew a vast crowd of 200, 000 persons or more. One of the features of the Exposition was the international art competition, in which Felix R. Hidalgo, Juan Luna, Felix Pardo de Tavera, and Rizal participated. Hidalgo’s painting was awarded second prize, the paintings of Juan Luna and F. Pardo de Tavera each obtained the third prize. While Rizal’s entry (a bust which he modelled got no prize. This bust was quite good to qualify for the exhibition, but not good enough to win an international prize. Kidlat Club. On March 19, 1889, the same day when he arrived in Paris from London, Rizal organized his paisanos (compatriots) into a society called Kidlat Club. Among the members were Antonio and Juan Luna, Gregorio Aguilera, Fernando Canon, Lauro Dimayuga, Julio Llorente, Guillermo Puatu, and Baldomero Roxas. The Kidlat Club was purely a social society of a temporary nature. It was founded by Rizal simply to bring together the young Filipinos in the French capital so that they sojourn in the city during the duration of the Universal Exposition. Thus he told Blumentritt in a letter dated March 19, 1889: Today we have formed a Kidlat Club. Kidlat in tagalog means lightning and for the same reason this Club will last only during the exposition. We have thought of it and formed it in hour. It will disappear also like lightning. Indios Bravos In their sightseeing tour of the exposition grounds Rizal and the members of the kidlat Club were amazed to see the Buffalo bull show which featured the American Idians . These red-skinned Indians were proudly riding their sturdy(matipuno) ponies elegantly dressed in their native attire and wearing their war feathers and paints. Rizal was enchanted by the dignified(marangal) and proud bearing of the American Indians . He told his friends; â€Å"Why should we resent(magdamdam) being called Indios by the Spaniards? Look at those Indios from American – They are not ashamed of their name. Let us be like them . Let us be proud of the name Indio and make our Spanish enemies revise their conception of the term. We shall be Indios Bravos. † Thus(kaya/ganoon) was born a new society of Filipino patriots in Paris – the Idios Bravos (Brave Indians). It replaced the ephemeral(panandalian) Kidlat Club. Its members pledged to excel Intellectual and physical prowess(kagitingan) in order to win the admiration of the foreigners, particularly the Spaniards. They practised with great enthusiasm(sigasig) the use of the sword and pistol . Rizal taught(itinuro) them judo, an Asian art of defence that he learned in Japan. R. D. L. M. society . Another society founded by Rizal in Paris during the universal Exposition of 1889 was the mysterious sociedad R. D. l. M. (R. D. L. M. Society) Many biographers of Rizal do not mention In fact , its existence and role in the crusade for reforms are really enigmatic(misteryoso) . Of the numerous letters written by Rizal and his follow propagandist s , only two mentioned this secret society as follows:9(1) Rizal ‘s Letter to Jose MariaBasa, Paris September 21,1889 and (2)Rizal’s Letter to Marcelo H. del Pilar ,Paris ,November 4 1889 According to Dr. Leoncio Lopez –Rizal , grandnephew of the hero , the society has a sysmbol or counter sign represented by a circle divided into three parts by two semi-circle having in the center the interlocked Letters I and B meaning Indios Bravos , and the letters R. D. L. M.placed outside an upper , lower , left and right sides of the circle. The letters R. D. L. M. are believed to be the initials of the society name Redencion de los Malayos (Redemption of the malayas ). So much mystsery surrounded the R. D. L. M. because Rizal rigidly guarded its secret exitence . Evidently , it was patterned after Freemansory . It had various degrees of membership , with the members not knowing each other . Only a few of Rizal ‘s trusted friends became memebers of the R. D. L. M. , namely ,Gregorio Aguilera ,jose ma. Basa, Julio Llorente , Marcelo H del Pilar , Mariano Ponce, Baldormore. Roxas ,and Father Jose Maria Changco (Filipino priest). The aim of the secret society, as stated by Rizal was the propagation of all useful knowledge – scientific , artistic , literary etc.. – in the Philippine . Evidently , there was another aim that is, the redemption(pagliligtas) of the Malaya race. It must be noted that Rizal was inspired by a famous Book entitled Max Havelaar (1860) wriiten by Multatuli (pseudonym of E. D Dekker ,dutch author) . This Book exposed the miserable conditions of the oppressed Malay inhabitants of the Netherlands East Indies under Dutch rule . A discerning(marung-pagkakaiba) study of the available Rizaliana documents and Rizal’s actuation show that the R. D. L. M. had something to do with the malay race . As Dr. Leoncio Lopez –Rizal cogently (kapanipaniwala) stated , Rizal’s colonization project in Borneo was â€Å"not merely to have a place where Filipinos could live and work with more liberty as well as free themselves from the oppressive conditions in the Philippine †¦but for something else more important, which is to have freedom of action to attain the aims of the R. D. L. M. which means †¦ the Redemption of the malay race. † Rizal writing blumentritt from Hong Kong on February 23 1892 , revealed his intention to be a leader of freedom , if not in the Philippines , then in other lands â€Å"In Borneo†he told (caudillo) of the planters who are thinking of emigrating there with me . I feel flattered by the idea that I can still serve my country with my pen . You Know very well that always , at all times, I am ready to serve my fatherland only my pen but also with my life whenever my fatherland would demand this sacrifice , But as I see that I am getting old , My ideals and dreams are fading ; if it is impossible for meto give freedom to my country , at least I should like to give it to these noble compatriots in other lands. Moreover, the contract for his bornean colonization included such provision as the right of the colonists to by the lands, the free use of the seashores, and the unusual long term of lease for 999 years, â€Å" a period of time long enough for many generation to form a nation and to consolidate its status â€Å" and to realize Rizal’s dream of redeeming the Malay race. Annotated Edition of Moraga Published. Rizal ‘s outstanding achievement in Paris was the publication in 1890 of his annotated edition of morga’s. Sucesos , which he wrote in the British Museum . It was printed by Garnier Freres. The Prologue was written by Professor Blumentritt, upon the request of Rizal. In his Prologue, Blumentritt commended Rizal for his fine historical scholarship. However , he frankly consured Rizal for two thing which revealed Rizal error’s, namely: (1) Rizal of the past in the light of present standard and(2) Rizal’s attack on the church were unfair should to be construed means that Catholicism is bad. Thus Blumentritt said. The high estimation of your notes (Rizal’s annotations Z. ) does not prevent me from confessing that more than once, I observed you that participate in the error of many modern historians, who judge of centuring past, in the light of concepts that corresponding to contemporary Ideas. This should not to be . The historians should not impute to the men of the 16th century the wide horizon of ideas that move the 19th century. The second point with which I am not in agreement has to do some to your fulmination against Catholicism I believe that not in religion but in the cruel method and the abuses of many priests should we look for the origin of many events lamentable for religion, for Spain, and for the good name of the European race. Notwithstanding the two blemishes of Rizal’s work, it is a splendid piece of historiography. Rizal annotated and published Morga’s Sucesos because it was the best of the many histories of the Philippines written by the early Spanish writers, being accurate in the narration of events, unbiased in judgement, and unmarred by childish fantasies. Rizal dedicated his new edition of Morga to the Filipino people so that they would know of their glorious past. His dedication is as follows: TO THE FILIPINO’S. In the Noli Me Tangere started to sketch the present state of our Fatherland: the effect which my attempt produced made me realize, before proceeding to develop before your eyes other pictures to follow, the necessity of first giving an understanding of the past in order the better to judge the present and measure the path traversed during the three centuries. Born and reared in ignorance of our past like almost all of you: without voice nor authority to speak of what we have not seen nor studied I deemed it necessary to invoke the testimony of an illustrious Spaniard who controlled the destinies of the Philippines at the beginning of its new era and personally witnessed the last days of our ancient nationality. It is, therefore, the shadow of our ancestors’ civilization which the author now shall call before you. I transmit to you faithfully his words without changing them nor mutilating them, adapting, only in so far as possible, to modern orthography and introducing greater clearness in the rather defective punctuations of the original, to facilitate its reading. The office, the nationality, and the virtues of Morga, together with the date and testimonies of his contemporaries, Spaniards for the most part, commend the work to your serious consideration. If the book succeeds in awakening in you, the consciousness of our past blotted from memory, and in rectifying what has been falsified and calumniated then I shall not have laboured in vain, and with this basis, slight thought it be, we can all devote ourselves to the study of the future. In this historical work, Rizal proved that the Filipinos were already civilized before the advent of Spain. They had clothes, government, laws. , writing, literature, religion, arts, sciences and commerce with neighbouring Asian nations. Rizal thus blasted the historicalheresies of the Spanish writers who claimed that the early Filipinos were savages and was of low mentality. Comment on Morga’s Publication Date. The title page of Rizal’s annotatedediton of Morga reads: â€Å"Paris, Libreria de Garnier Hermanos, 1890. † From this printed date, all biographers of Rizal came to assert that his edition of Morga was published in 1890. However, there is documentary evidence to show that Rizal’s from Leitmeritz, saying: â€Å"I have just receive your magnificent edition of Morga. This edition with your notes will glorify your name. † Rizal himself, in his letter to Dr. Baldomero Roxas from Paris, December 28, 1899, stated: â€Å"Today I sent to Lipa four copies of Morga. Later I will send some more. † From Barcelona, Mariano Ponce wrote to Rizal on December 31, 1889, saying: â€Å"I received the bookSucesos. Many thanks. I have read only Blumentritt’s prolongue. Truly excellent. Please send me immediately about ten copies thah I can send to the Philippines by the first mail that is going there. † The three letters cited above — from Blumentritt, B. Roxas, and M. Ponce — are incontrovertible proofs that Morga’s Sucesosby Rizal actually came off the press in 1889. Otherwise, how could these three friends of Rizal read the book before 1890? Rizal as Historian. Rizal’s research studies in the British Museum (London) and in the Bibliotheque Nationale (Paris) enriched his historical knowledge. His splendid annotations to Morga’s book showed his familiarity with the basic priciples of historiography. As he once told rigorously imparted. . . I never assert anything on my own authority. I cite texts and when I do, I have them before me. † His knowledge of foreign languages enabled Rizal to read historical documents and books in the languages in which they were originally written. For instance, he read Pigafetta’s famous First Voyage Around the World in Italian; the historical works of Marsden, Raffles, Lord Stanley, and Wallance in English; the writings of Blumintritt, Jagor, and Virchow in German; the books of M. Jacquet, J. Mallat, and A. Marche in French; and the works of T. H. Pardo de Tavera, Pedro A. Paterno, Miguel Morayta, and Pi y Margall in Spanish. By his extensive reading of archival sources and books in foreign countries, he acquired wide not only of Philippine history, but also the history of European colonization in Asia. Aside from his excellent annotations on Morga’s book, Rizal wrote other works which qualify him to be a real historian. Among them were the two historical commentaries written in London, Ma-yi(December 6, 1888) and Tawalisiof Ibn Batuta (January 7, 1889); Filipinas dentro de Cien Anos (The Philippines Within a Century), published in La Solidaridad in four issues on September 30, October 31, December 15, 1889 February 15, 1890; Sobre la Indolencia de los Filipinos (The Indolence of the Filipinos), published in La Solidaridad in five successive issues on July 15, July 31, August 1, August 31, and September 1, 1880; La Politica Colonial on Filipinas (Colonial Policy in the Philippines), no date; Manila en el mes de Diciembre, 1872 (Manila in the Month of December, 1872), no date; Historia de la Familia Rizal de Calamba (History of the Rizal family of Calamba); no date and Los Pueblos del Archipielago Indico (The Peoples of the Indian Archipelago), no date. The Philippines within a Century. In this article Rizal expressed his views on the Spanish colonization in the beginning of his article the glorious past of the Filipino people, then described their economic stagnation and unhappiness under the harsh and bungling Spanish rule. Toward the last paragraphs of the articl, he peered into the future and warned Spain of what would happen to her colonial empire in Asia if she would not adopt a more liberal and enlighted policy toward the Philippines. Significant passages in this historical essay are as follows: To recapitule: the Philippines wil remain Spanish if they enter upon the life of law and civilization, if the rights of their inhabitants are respected, if the other rights of due them are granted, if the liberal policy of the government is carried out without trickery or meanness, without subterfuges or false interpretatios. Otherwise, if an attempt is made to see in the islands a lode to be exploited , a resource to satisfy ambition †¦ shutting its ears to all cries of reason , then however great may be the loyalty of the filipino , it will be impossible to operation of the laws of history . Colonies established to subserve the policy and commerce of the sovereign country , all eventually become independent †¦ If the Philippines secure their independence after heroic and stubborn conflict , they can rest assured that neither England nor Germany , nor france , and still lees Holland will dare to take up what spian has been unable to told . Perhaps the great American Republic. Whose interests lie in the Pacific and who hand in the spoliation Africa may some day dream of foreign possession . This is not impossible , for the example is contagious , covetousness and ambition are among the strongest vices. Very likely, the Philippine s will defend with inexpressible valor the liberty secured at the price of so much blood and sacrifice. With the new men that will spring from their soil and with the recollection of their past, they will perhaps strive to enter freely upon the wide road of progress, and all will labor together to strengthen their fatherland.. Then the mines will be made to give up their gold for relieving distress, iron for weapon ,copper ,lead and coal . Perhaps the country will revive the maritime and mercantile life for which the islanders are fitted by their nature , ability ,and instincts, and one more to free ,bird that leaves its cage , like the flower that unfolds to the air , will recover the pristine virtues that are gradually dying out and will again become addicted to peace-cheerful, happy, joyous ,hospitable and daring. The Indolence of the Filipinos. This other essay of Rizal is also a prestigious work of historical scholarship . It is an able defence of the alleged indolence of the Filipinos In the spirit of a real scholar, Rizal made a critical study of the causes why his people did not work hard during the Spanish regime . His main thesis was that the Filipino are not by nature indolent. Long before the coming of the Spaniards he pointed the Filipinos were industrious and hard-working : They were very active in agriculture , industries , and commerce The Spaniard conquest of the country brought about a decline in economic activities because the Filipinos had abandoned their pre – Spanish industries and worked less than their ancestors . Such decline in economic life was due to certain causes: (1)the native revolts and other internal disorders which followed thre establishment of Spanish rule ,(2) the wars which the Filipinos fought for Spain against the dutch Portuguese ,English , and other enemies : (3) the frightful raids on the coastal towns and village of Christians Philippines by the Muslim pirates of Mindanao and Sulu ; (4) the forced labour which compelled thousands of Filipinos labourers to work in shipyards ,roads ,bridges, and other public works resulting in the abandonment of industry ,commerce ,and agriculture ;(5) lack of stimulus to work harder because the people could not enjoy the fruits of their labor; (6) government neglect and indifference to agriculture ,industry ,commerce ;(7) The bad example shown by the Spaniards in despising manual labor ;(8)the teaching of Spanish missionaries that it is easier for a poor man to enter heaven than for a rich man , hence the Filipinos prefer not to work and be poor so that they could easily enter heaven after they die ;(9) encouragement and propagation of gambling by the Spanish authorities ; and (10) system of Spanish as Rizal asserted , the education did not promote economics enterprise and activity , for , as Rizal asserted , the education of the native was â€Å"from his birth until he sinks into his grave is brutalizing , depressive and anti-human â€Å"and† deprives him of his dignity. It is true , admitted Rizal , that the Filipinos are easy –going and do not work so hard because they are enough to adjust themselves to their warm , tropical climates . they do not have themselves working hard in order to live because nature gives them abundant harvests by working less than those in temperate and arid countries . â€Å"The Fact†, explained Rizal. †is that in tropical countries violent work is not a good thing ,as it is death , destruction , annihilation . Nature knows this and like a just mother has therefore made the earth more fertile ,and more productive ,as a compensation . An hour’s work under that burning sun, in the midst of pernicious influences springing from nature in activity , is equal to a day ‘s labor in a temperature climates ; it is then , just that the earth yields a hundredfold . International Associations of Filipinologists. Taking advantages of world attention which attention was than focused at the Universal Exposition of Paris proposed to establish an â€Å" International Association of filipinologists â€Å" and have its inaugural convention in the French capital . He first submitted this ideas to blumentritt in a letter dated January 14 1889. And the letter international association. According to his prospectus, the aim of the association is â€Å"to study the Philippines from the scientific and historical points of view the officers were a follows: President †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Dr . Ferdinand Bluementritt (Austrian) Vice President †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Mr . Edmund Plauchut (French) Counsellor †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. Dr . Reinhold Rost (Anglo-German) Secretary †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Dr. Jose Rizal (Filipino).

Thursday, August 29, 2019

The Disorders of Mobility and Balance in the Hospital Environment Essay

The Disorders of Mobility and Balance in the Hospital Environment - Essay Example Reflective research was the means of learning from experience. Nurses had become busy practitioners considering the complexity of the environment they work in. The difficult and varying interpersonal relationships in the hospital milieu warranted that the nurse was to possess characteristics which helped her survive (Taylor, 2001). Whatever the constraints, the nurse had to deliver. Action research and reflection were two components which involved almost all the work that was done by a nurse. The educative nature of action research contributed to the learning experience. The relationship with patients could grow through psychosocial aspects of behaviour. Problem-focused research was possible with this kind of research. The specific context also was significant for reflection and remembering for future recall (Taylor, 2001). Trying out a specific intervention which was going to benefit patients in the future was possible. Improvement in therapy and involvement to change it could add t o the learning process through reflection. The change process could involve participants and nurses in a research relationship. Action research had contributed to many of the changes in the nurse’s life. The self-directed learning process was conducive to more effectiveness in their practice and the clarification of their roles (Taylor, 2001). Even participants could be empowered through the efforts of the nurse. The diverse aspects of solving problems, planning for changes and frequent evaluation were dealt with in reflective research.

Wednesday, August 28, 2019

Multivariate analysisand cluster Speech or Presentation

Multivariate analysisand cluster - Speech or Presentation Example This analysis is aimed at investigating the significant difference between the USFOX and BRITISHFOX. In this study, the variables are F1 Height at shoulders in centimetres, F2 body length in centimetres, and F3 weight in kilograms. In this case we will investigate if there is any difference in adult male red fox measurements between the US and Great Britain. The difference between the two populations USFOX and British FOX will also be investigated in this research. In this study, we will investigate if there exists any correlation between the height at the shoulders, and the length of the body (Tunner. D. E and Youssef-Morgar C.M, 2013). The correlation between the height of the body and the weight of the body. The correlation between the length of the body and the weight of the body. We will first explore the population to investigate the univariate normality and bivariate normality, Kutner, M. H., C. J. Nachtsheim, J. Neter, andW. Li (2005). We will also explore the relationship be tween the variables. We use the r-program to do the analysis test for univariate and bivariate normal. Statistics is in every day activities, and its hard to go without any encounter of statistics (Campbell, G, Stonehouse, G & Houston, B 2002). Without statistics, we couldn’t be able to plan our budgets, pay our taxes, enjoy ourselves to the fullest or even evaluate our performance in the various job positions. Descriptive statistics includes qualitatively describing the features of gathering of information. Descriptive statistics aims at summarizing the sample unlike inferential statistics that aim at learning about the population. The descriptive statistics are not obtained on the ground of probability theory. Some of the measures used to define the data are the measures of central tendency and the measures of dispersion (Brue Stanley. & Randy Grant, 2007). The measure of central tendency that we are going to look at include; mean,

Tuesday, August 27, 2019

Developping and managing sales for Google Essay

Developping and managing sales for Google - Essay Example It is indeed one of the things that happened to the Internet and the information technology world in general. Also, Google has been expanding in business, as word of mouth has played a huge role in its success and the advertising. This goes to show the affection and praise that the people, no matter their age or where they come from, have for the Google Company. Google has its headquarters in Mountain View, California, United States, and the company's Chief Executive Officer is Dr. Eric Schmidt, who is also the Chairman of the Board. Google has devised different platforms, so as to be constantly in touch with its investors, has an 'Investor relations' program that is constantly encouraging investors to invest in the various realms of Google's business and growth. Google builds on its market share and strives to grow in an exponential manner by focusing more than anything else on a 'Build' strategy. It is perceivable that this particular strategy is serving the cause well for Google than a Hold, Divest or Harvest strategy would. The business strategy that is adopted by Google is of a niche nature, since it targets different audiences differently. The company blends its logo and themes according to the situation and people residing within a particular reachout region. Also Google focuses significantly on changes in season and era, utilizing different strategies to target different market areas. This ensures the building of long term relationships, and an understanding of Google's attachment with specific audiences. Google's success Google is famous for 'searching' all over the world. Such is the fame of this company all over the world that it has become a generic word of English and other languages, and is meant to stand for running a search for information about a particular topic on the Internet. This speaks volumes of the rise of Google as a brand and as a service in the lives of the people. Google is here to stay, as the company has been providing valuable services its users. Thus without a shadow of a doubt, Google is indeed a successful business and is renowned for being one of the first and the best in the industry. Google is considered as a success also because it is

Monday, August 26, 2019

The Law of Trusts Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

The Law of Trusts - Essay Example As mentioned above there must also be certain of subject matter and certainty of the object. If no specific property has been indicated then the trust will not be valid. Similarly, if the property has been indicated but not clearly defined then the trust will fail. This may happen where the testator attempts to leave the residuary of their estate to another. On some occasions, it may be impossible to identify the trust property, or the property may be unascertained property as in the case of Hunter v Moss [1994] where the courts held that the declaration of trust in respect of shares was not void for certainty because the shares had not been segregated or appropriated. In this case, the court held that the declaration by Moss of holding 5% of the shares on trust for Hunter could be identifiable property as it did not matter which of the shares were to become the property of the other. In order to establish which of the dispositions above is valid, it is necessary to examine the benef iciary principle to determine which of the above meet the criteria and can be classified as beneficiaries. It is also necessary to look at cases that do not satisfy the beneficiary principle but have been treated as valid and the circumstances when the courts have accepted the trust as valid despite not meeting the criteria for the beneficiary principle. One of the main difficulties that could be caused by the above dispositions is in determining whether they are purpose trusts or whether they benefit specific beneficiaries.

Sunday, August 25, 2019

HW Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 4

HW - Essay Example For example, will you limit your clientele, or be neutral? The quiz highlighted only some minor areas that may be uncomfortable, such as discovering sexual orientation of people, who was initially believed to be traditionally heterosexual. As such, in my professional life, I plan to manage seemingly uncomfortable situations by being holistically prepared to handle them. This means that I should have enough theoretical background on addressing sensitive issues and be emotionally, or even physically and mentally adept to respond and react accordingly. As such, I could assume a more neutral stance if I am well-equipped and prepared to handle unexpected uncomfortable situations. 3. What is your opinion on intersex and transgender athletes competing despite their differences from the norms of athletics? Is it cheating for a female with naturally very high levels of testosterone to compete with females? Is it fair to have a transgendered male to female individual compete against other females? In terms of intersex and transgender athletes competing despite their differences from the norms of athletics, I strongly believe that the law of equality and fair play should preside. This means that as long as these athletes perform and have shown competencies in their sports endeavors, the gender or sexual orientation should not be an issue. Thus, a female with naturally high levels of testosterone could compete with females, unless this factor would give unfair advantage. As such, if she has prior knowledge of this, I affirm that it should be disclosed to the sports committee prior to joining. In terms of having a transgendered male to female individual compete against other females, again, I believe that unless some factors inherent to them (transgendered male or female) would give unfair advantage, they could actually compete with other females. The sports

Saturday, August 24, 2019

I think that Television technologie have the greatest impact on global Research Paper

I think that Television technologie have the greatest impact on global communications for these reasons - Research Paper Example In the current world people are enjoying the evolution of flat screens, and the technology of 3D. Viewers enjoy better view and the industry will be big in the future. Most of the duties performed by television industries are unique like broadcasting football matches from different part of the earth. The introduction of big flat and colored televisions are making individuals enjoy when watching football matches unlike before when everything broadcasted by televisions were only in black and white. International relations is the relationship between countries in the world. This relationship is based on mutual respect. This is because every country in the world is a sovereign state. International relations has facilitated a lot of things in the world; the growth and development of the international market depends highly on the international relations between different states of the world (Wilkins, 2001). Evolution of Television Opt electric Transformation This was the first of the serie s of the nineteenth-century discoveries which finally became the basis of television discovery. This process which leads to changes of behavior of electrons caused by variations in amount of light illuminating a given material. This process was very instrumental in the development of the television (Todorivic, 14). ... For it to be possible to reproduce all the tones from black to white passing by different shades of gray, the light source was expected to be able to change its intensity several hundred times in the course of one television line, and this was to be during the 60th of the duration of one picture ( Todorivic, 17). The Cathode-Ray Tube More research in the development of television shows that Nipkow disk was not a perfect solution for the display of transmitted moving images. By the end of nineteenth century cathode-ray tube was developed which became the essential and basic television display device (Todorivic, 17). Discovery and development of the television have had several advantages to the world. Television can be used for entertainment and as well as educational uses. Television is one source of informing whereby broadcast news and weather stations help in keeping people updated about the current events. This helps people in knowing what is happening around them before they make some decisions or adjustments to fit in the updates received from the television. Television can be used for educating purposes. Through the programs casted by the television and adverts individuals are able to learn new things through this channel of communication. When families sit together to watch different programs, this helps in creating a strong family bond because as people watch they share a lot about what they are watching (Anthony, 2007). Complex TV shows or movies requires a great deal of intelligence to comprehend the story line of the show or movie. The current TV stations not only bring comedy, drama and action to their viewers but also they have been bringing some programs

Friday, August 23, 2019

The Stiry about Misunderstanding Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The Stiry about Misunderstanding - Essay Example I headed towards an empty table, under a window. The sun shone iridescently through the window pane onto the table. I sat directly under the sunlight. The sunrays felt exhilarating, yet calming and peaceful. It's a good thing my daily moisturizer had sunscreen. If not, I would have been bleached by now. I sat there content, with my overflowing tray of food, sunshine, and solace, in the much larger sea of the noisy cafeteria. I was about to eat. Suddenly, he appeared. I hadn't noticed him come in. That was unlike me. I always notice him. He stood in front of me, with a tray overflowing with food as well. My stomach instantly began to churn as if small currents of electricity bounced around the insides of my intestines. The sound of his voice resounded in my ear. It was a voice that I was very familiar with. It was the first thing I noticed about him a few weeks ago, in class. He was invisible to me until I heard him speak. There was nothing special about his appearance. His style was unappealing. However, it was his voice that had its own presence. One day, the teacher had asked him a question in front of the rest of the class. When he spoke, my soul could hear, and opened like a flower, that absorbed each one of his words, as if they were rays of nourishing sunlight feeding my existence. His voice had a greatness that didn't ask for permission. He spoke with a confident indifference of how he was perceived, as if he were certain of his purpose and aware of the strength of his presence. His voice spoke to a part of me that I was unaware of. His strength and defiance represented everything that I wanted to be. I couldn't stop noticing him afterwards. In the cafeteria, as he stood in front of me with the tray of food in his hand, he took off his book bag, put it in the chair next to me, and sat down in the chair directly across from my seat. I wanted to run and hide. My body didn't understand basic functions anymore. I felt paralyzed, awkward. I looked at my plate; it was now a blurry painting of different colors without any smell. Unable to pick up my fork, I looked across the room, and then at different tables, and finally out the window, anywhere except at him. I took a sip of juice. It tasted like acid. I felt as if my hand shook. I quickly put the glass back down. I couldn't believe he was sitting here. Did he know that I had been watching him Had he noticed me too Was he following me Was he making an excuse to sit with me I wanted to say something but couldn't. How much longer was he going to sit here I wished he would hurry up and finish. Yet, at the same time, I wanted him to stay, at my table, sitting directly across from me, stuffing sausage in his mouth. But, what did he really want Why did he sit here What was he thinking My stomach gurgled with the electric currents that now crouched and kicked like a Russian Folk Dancer. He hungrily stuffed his face with several more Italian sausages, two strips of bacon, some scrambled eggs, and drank some orange juice. Then he looked up at me."So, what do you think of the teacher" he said, in between mouthfuls of

MGM330-0704A-04 Business Decision-Making - Phase 3 Discussion Board Essay

MGM330-0704A-04 Business Decision-Making - Phase 3 Discussion Board - Essay Example Hypothesis testing is a statistical method can be utilized in a variety of applications. The method basically allows a researcher to make a claim about a particular population (data) called the null hypothesis which is then tested by this method to determine if the claim was true or false (Levine & Stephan & Krehbel & Berenson, 2006, p.332). The test works by providing a null hypothesis and an alternative hypothesis. If the null hypothesis is either accepted or rejected. If the null hypothesis is rejected that means there is sufficient evidence to validate the alternative hypothesis is true. The normal curve and its corresponding normal distribution table which is associated with Z values is an important variable in the process of a hypothesis test. Hypothesis testing follow a particular algorithm or procedure that must be perform every time the test is perform. The key steps of a hypothesis test are: Another powerful and very useful statistical method is regression analysis. The regression analysis method is a predictive model that allows the statistician to determine the values of a variable within an equation based on the given data about the other variable. This method has very valuable application for forecasting. A common technique of this model is simple regression which can be applied utilizing the least square approach. This approach uses the formula Y = aX + b (McClave & Benson & Sinich, 2001, p.460). The two key variables are called the dependent and the independent variables. An example of an application of this model is a production problem. A company can used this equation to predict many sales it can generate in the future based on past sales totals of the past years. Software such as Microsoft Excel, Minitab or graphical calculators such as the Ti-89 Titanium created by Texas Instrument can be utilized to perform linear regression analysis. There is another type o f regression analysis called multiple

Thursday, August 22, 2019

Goodner Brother Inc Essay Example for Free

Goodner Brother Inc Essay 1. Key internal control objectives of Goodner’s Huntington Sales Office: a. Controls should be able to prevent and detect fraud. Authorization should be required for every sales transaction. Woody would not be able to sell returned tires from customers and consignees for his own benefits if all sales transactions needed prior management’s approval. b. Controls should aim at safeguarding physical assets. Sales Office should ensure that only certain authorized personnel could get access to the warehouse and at any time security should be enforced to minimize inventory shortages and shrinkages c. Controls should ensure the completeness and accuracy of accounting records. Woody would charge merchandise that he sold for his benefit to the accounts of large volume customers. Or in other words, Woody has altered the nature of the transactions by inflating the number of tires the customers actually ordered. 2. Key internal control weaknesses that were evident in the Huntington unit’s operations a. Strong reliance on the honesty and integrity of the employees they hired. The company recruited its personnel basing off references and recommendations; however this practice could not make up for the lack of a strong internal control system. b. Insufficient personnel. Its crew of 10 to 12 people had to staff its 14 sales outlets. Many of Goodner’s personnel had to take on double positions such as Goodner’s secretary who worked as both the receptionist and the bookkeeper. c. Unrestricted access to the accounting system by the unit’s sales manager and two sales representatives. This gave Woody a good opportunity to commit fraud. d. Lack of security for its tire inventory, which typically ranged from $300,000 to $700,000 per each sales outlet. 3. Control policies or procedures to alleviate the control weaknesses identified in question 2: a. Authorization of transactions: Management approval should be required on all transactions. Otherwise, the tire purchase request should be made by one individual and got approved by a different one. b. Segregation of duties: The secretary should not act as both the secretary and the receptionist. Report on returned items should be generated by one individual and then another individual should receive and put the returned items back to stock.

Wednesday, August 21, 2019

The More Effective Leader: Hitler Or Stalin?

The More Effective Leader: Hitler Or Stalin? Introduction In a sense, a certain analogy appears to be between Adolf Hitler and Joseph Stalin. It is vital to recognize that these two dictators of the twentieth century represented embodiments of modern evil. Both leaders possessed almost absolute power due to their unprecedented level of repression and attempted manipulation and indoctrination. Each of these dictators was drifted by revolutionary and controversial monopolistic set of dogmatic principles about the internal systemization of society and the leading power of history. Although Hitler and Stalin shared some clear parallelisms, their personalities, the effectiveness of leadership and specific regimes were fairly distinct rather than similar. The first part of this essay will concentrate on the analysis of various historiographical interpretations, focusing on the intentionalist view, to critically assess the effectiveness of Hitlers leadership qualities in particular. Secondly, the essay will focus on the comparison of some distinct aspects of Hitler and Stalins dictatorships in order to examine the importance of power hierarchy in both their regimes. It will be argued that both leaders had different styles of leadership that played very important part in moulding of their authorities and leading power. Furthermore, the essay will evaluate some principal tools of power such as the cult of personality, the powerful machine of propaganda, the use of terror and the development of pivotal economic policies, in order to provide a compact framework of Hitlers leadership potential capabilities. It will be highlighted that Stalin counted far too much upon mass terror therefore he was unable to maintain an efficient mechanism of leadership. Lastly, the essay will conclude by connecting the analysis of Hitlers dictatorship to the current debate between historical scholars, therefore the central argument will be proved that Hitler personified more competent and constructive leader compared to Stalin.* *The purpose of this essay is not to establish the fact that Hitler was, to a certain extent, a leading giant or a failure. It is meant to assess a man and the various facets of successful leadership he applied during his domination in the Third Reich that makes him more effective leader in comparison with Stalins abilities and intentions. The Analysis of Historiographical Interpretations of Hitlers Leadership It is indispensable to realize that several historical schools of thought (the Functionalist/ Structuralist and the Intentionalist school) have tried to account for their own arguments and interpretations of Hitlers dictatorship abilities. Lets look at the major points of each historiographical perspective in order to analyze Hitler as more effective leader in comparison with Stalin; and evaluate the relevance of Kershaws theory of Working Towards the Fuhrer in terms of Hitlers role in the Third Reich. Advocates of the Functionalist view, such as Martin Broszat and Hans Mommsen, largely concentrate on the interpretation of systematization of Hitlers Nazi Germany and on his leadership qualities and charisma which played an essential role in strengthening Hitlers leading effectiveness. According to Broszat, Nazi Germany represented a chaotic tangle of conflicting institutions and bureaucracies therefore the figure of Adolf Hitler was not a key driving force behind the dynamics and organization of Hitlers Germany (Broszat, 1981: p. 262). It can be argued that Hitler as a leader did not solely dominate to the Third Reich because there were constant power struggles initiated by several institutions. Furthermore, in Broszats perspective, Hitler epitomized a weak dictator because the Third Reich signified a dualistic state where Nazi Party operated simultaneously with the normal institutions of Nazi state (Broszat, 1981: p. 244). Broszat advocated that behind a faà §ade of Nazi integrity , there were perpetual struggles for power between the revolutionary Nazi institutions, such as SA and SS, and the traditional authority of German state. According to Broszats opinion, Hitlers leadership style enabled Nazi state to emerge as a collection of competing power units which triggered the radical forces to penetrate into German society (Kershaw, 2000: p. 75). Certainly Hitler undermined orderly government in Germany by his habit of appointing several people to practically the same job, resulting in official competing for Hitlers favour. The Intentionalist historiography is embedded in the concept of Social Darwinism, therefore according to this view Hitler was depicted as a fanatical and extreme ideologist who was incessantly avid for nationalism, militarism, the importance of lebensraum and anti-Semitism. It is worth noting that there is a certain parallel between the Nazi bureaucratic machinery and Darwinian Theory of competition in terms of power struggle. In a certain way, Hitler as a leader represented the fittest element of the Nazi Party, relying on his personal appeal. Hitler was essentially responsible for the increasing momentum of radicalization. In Allan Bullocks view, he was very strong and artful leader, creating uncertainty, confusion and tension among his adherents in order to secure his leading post. Therefore, it is evident that Hitlers intention was to provoke unchecked struggle and competition until the natural selection and the survival of the fittest would have occurred (Kershaw Lewin, 1997: p. 96). To a certain extent, a highly regarded scholar Ian Kershaw inclined to endorse the interpretation of Functionalist/Structuralist school regarding Hitlers leadership qualities. On one hand, Kershaw does not associate himself with the thesis that Hitler was a weak dictator and therefore played an unimportant role in the Third Reich. On the other hand, Kershaw had advocated the idea that Hitler was completely uninvolved in the daily administrative work (Kershaw, 1998: p. 529). It is necessary to point out that Kershaw considered Hitler to be a lazy dictator who was highly inconsistent, indecisive and did not engage in the everyday direction of Germany (Kershaw, 1998: p. 533). However, other structuralist champions, such Mason, maintained that Hitler was predominantly involved in the leading of his interests: military decision-making and planning of foreign policy (Kershaw, 1998: p. 532). It might be argued that Hitlers clear focus enhanced his untouchable leading status and veiled him i n the mystery. Moreover, Kershaw argued that the actual importance of Hitler was mainly based on the perception of Germans people of Hitlers personality and not just on the character of his dictatorship.1 _______________________________________________________ 1 It is vital to recognize that some historians agreed that Hitlers effective leadership aimed to arrange his power that would enable him continuously to educate the people in the spirit of his mission by means (in his words) the total domination of every individual (Cassinelli, 1976: p 63). Nazism and Stalinism: The Comparison of Leadership Styles Æ’Â   Ideology The main contrast between the Stalinism and Nazism was that both regimes arose from completely different types of societies traditions. Russias lack of culture, traditions and illiteracy meant that Stalin had very limited possibilities to accomplish his large tasks, such as transform the whole society from bourgeois system to socialist community. The Nazi ideology was shaped Given that Hitler was allergic to any restriction to his power, he had no clear-cut effort to form the administrative anarchy of the Third Reich. It is essential to emphasize that Hitler is characterized by the unbureaucratic style of leadership mainly because he remained quite aloof from the daily business and government and distanced himself from the intricate situations. Although his style of leadership appears to be, to some extent, limited, Hitler predominantly focused on the realm of his personal interests, such as foreign policy and military affairs. It can be argued, that this unbureaucratic style emphasized Hitlers personality, an inescapable product of the deification of the leadership position itself (Kershaw, Ian, 1997: p. 99). It can be purported that Hitler did not want to concern himself with the administration to sustain prestige to match the created image (Kershaw, 1997: p. 100). According to Marx Webers classic study of the authority of power, the quality of Hitlers charisma consists in his apparent possession of supernatural or superhuman or at all events specifically out of the ordinary qualities, which make him appear an emissary of God, or a destined Leader (Schapiro, 1972: p. 21). By contrast, Stalin personified very interventionist dictator whose main objective was to established the centralization of state power in order to eliminate the party-state dualism (Kershaw Lewin, 1997: p. 91) but also to create a monopolization of all decision-making, in relation to economic reconstruction, to open up a giant bureaucratization of all aspects of life. He intended to intentionally provoke instability in the governmental apparatus and society to implement his unpopular policies by the full command of modern means of control and administration [EVIDENCE]. Stalins power was, therefore, described as bureaucratic authority (Kershaw Lewin, 1997: p. 98) hence his influence in daily administration was far-reaching and cross-sectional. This fact suggests that Hitler largely relied on his charismatic impression to coordinate the states apparatus and gain a public support for his policies and actions, therefore it might be argued that Hitler was more effective leader in strengt hening his support and forming a new and higher kind of man by a process that involved the remolding of mens psychologies than Stalin (Cassinelli, 1976: p. 63). However, Stalin was able to transform illiterate and backward masses of Russians into obedient and simple-minded people. He relied on the masses that have a certain purity and naivetà © enabling them to understand the essence of significant situations. [2] _______________________________________________________ [2] As Stalin said, Simple people sometimes prove to be far nearer to the truth than some highly placed institutions. (Cassinelli, 1976: p. 89) ***Joseph Stalin declared: Can such a radical transformation of the old bourgeois system of society be achieved without a violent revolution, without the dictatorship of the proletariat? (Cassinelli, 1976: p. 77) The Effectiveness of Hitlers Leadership There is no doubt that Hitler and Stalins regimes shared some similar characteristics, nevertheless the main argument of this essay is based on fact that Hitler represented more effective and visionary leader compared to Stalin in terms of the cult of personality, propaganda, the use of terror and economic strategies several significant ways compared to Stalin. Therefore it is quite substantial to take into account the extent to which these major factors contributed to the effectiveness of Hitlers leadership. In essence, both Stalin and Hitler applied their power in different manner, however they shared a common ground regarding to implementation of their power. Evidence I: The Cult of Personality One of the principal factor, that significantly contributed to Hitlers effective leadership, was his sophisticated cult of personality. [3] Hitler was regarded as the personification of the nation and the unity of the national community therefore he primarily established his mastery on a cultivated principle of personal loyalty to which he could always successfully appeal at moments of crisis (Kershaw, 1997: p. 93). It must be noted that the principal reason for Hitlers domination of all who assisted him was an extraordinary power of his individuality. Hitler radiated confidence, high self-esteem and strong belief in his ability; it made him extremely powerful and everyone was frightened by his aura of total assuredness (Cassinelli, 1976: p. 73) thus he could stir up emotions and hypnotize the broad spectrum of German society. Hitlers main characteristic features were his skills to achieve an extraordinary power over the German people and ability to accomplish his political objective s. In large measure, his power to grip an attention and public admiration was especially due to his exceptional oratorical talent. [4] Hitler used his speeches as a powerful tool of political intoxication that inspired a degree of fervor in his listeners that seems to defy definition and explanation (De Luca, 1983: p. 96-7). Therefore it can be argued that Hitlers leadership uniqueness stemmed from his geniality to effectively use spoken word in order to manipulate mass propaganda for his own benefit. In Hitlers view, words build bridges into unexplored regions (Bullock, 1962: p. 372). The key aspect of this argument is that his uncanny ability to appeal to the subconscious and irrational needs of his audience and to solicit the desired response made him a formidable political figure (De Luca, 1983: p. 96-7). Furthermore, Hitler, in contrast to Stalin, was able to add the authority of spiritual founder of national socialism to that of party leader. _______________________________________________________ [3] Charismatic rule has long been neglected and ridiculed, but apparently it has deep roots and becomes a powerful stimulus once the proper psychological and social doubt that millions believe in it (Neumann, 1942: p. 75). Both the Stalinist and the Nazi regimes signified a new genre of political system that concentrated the artificial concept of a leadership cult the heroic myth of the great leader, who represented a man of the people and no more super-ordinate monarch who was distant to the masses. However, in Moshe Lewins view, the rapid pace of centralization in Stalins leadership resulted in rapid growth of officialdom; hence, it might be said that the cult of Stalin was replaced by the cult of the state (Kershaw Lewin, 1997: p. 11) hence Stalin predominantly concentrated on reinforcing his authority in order to be seen as autocratic and retain. [5] It is necessary to emphasize that Stalins rise to power was from within the Soviet Union consequently he shared public glorification with former icons such as Vladimir Lenin and Karl Marx. The crucial aspect of this argument is that Stalin and his communist ideology could be detached therefore when Stalin died the similar cult of personality never evo lved around his successor but the Soviet communism preserved. It is worth noting that unlike Stalin, Hitler became a permanent image of Nazism. The Fuhrer principle, in essence, rooted in Hitler formulated the Nazis system of governance. [6] megalomaniac ambitions _______________________________________________________ [4] Walter Langer depicts Hitler as a showman with a great sense for the dramatic. However he provides very clear characterization of Hitlers captivating rallies: Not only did [Hitler] he schedule his speeches late in the evening when his audience would be tired and their resistance lowered through natural causes, but would always send an assistant ahead of time to make a short speech warm up the audience. Strom troops always played an important role at these meetings and would line the aisle through which he would pass. At the psychological moment, Hitler would appear in the door at the back of the hall. Then with a small group behind him, he would march through the rows of S.A. men to reach the speakers table. He never glanced to the right or to the left as he came down the aisle and became greatly annoyed if anyone tried to accost him or hampered his progress. Whenever possible he would have a band present, and would strike up a lively military march as he came down the aisle (Lan ger, 1972: p. 46). [5] To a certain extent, a Cult of Stalin Worship developed from a sense of paranoia because he wanted people to deify him and if he had to accomplish it though brutal means then he was prepared to do so. [6] Moreover, it might be said that the loyal adulation of Hitler signified the most effective political instrument of power in Nazi Germany, therefore there was no reliance and dependence on massive domestic constrain that was typical feature for Stalins rule. Evidence II: Propaganda Æ’Â   controlling every single aspect of daily-life Æ’Â   parades and marches provided a sense of order and gave a feeling of belonging. So that the unity between the people was very firm. Æ’Â  youth indoctrination The second key factor strengthening the effectiveness of Hitlers power was the Nazi propaganda that played very substantial role in the setting of totalitarian society. In essence, the primary objective of Hitlers propaganda was not the ideological enlightenment of the masses, but their mobilization for action through extensive spreading of ideas and symbols aimed at influencing opinion and attitude of wide range of people. For Hitler, propaganda was the sharpest weapon in conquering the state, and remains the sharpest weapon in maintaining and building up the state (Hinton Hite, 2000: p. 244). It can be affirmed that every propaganda was the preparation of political activities (Unger, 1974:p. 35). Hitlers effectiveness to indoctrinate society might be seen in fact that the high cultural level of the Germans allowed the Nazis to extensively apply the technical potentialities of modern propaganda as far as possible; therefore Nazis propagandist intended to develop the manipulation of words and symbols into the highest creative art (Unger, 1974: p. 47). [EVIDENCE Æ’Â   Unger p. 43] [7] In some way, this propaganda had also considerable success in strengthening overall support for Hitler and the regime, by reinforcing enthusiasm for a strong leader who was capable of making Germany economically and military powerful. For instance, the Nuremberg rallies brought some excitement into peoples lives and gave them a sense of belonging to a great movement. [EVIDENCE Æ’Â   DATA, STATISTICS World History] In contrast, Stalins propaganda contended with the lack of technical skills and the virtues of labour disciple therefore the effectiveness of propaganda was very limited. Due to the lack of modern mass media in the Soviet Union, a large illiterate masses (especially peasantries), were only indoctrinated by oral agitation which was hardly disseminate across large distances. There were no cultural and informational media which cemented the framework of modern society, therefore the Soviet propaganda was full of stereotyped monotony of Stalins declarative and simplistic slogans convincing the Russians about Stalins greatness and invincibility. In other words, Soviet propaganda had to be adapted to the capacity of the least intelligent and constant repetition was one of its main weapons (Unger, 1974: p. 46). Æ’Â   forcible collectivization of agriculture led to a direct clash between Stalins regime and the majority of the population therefore the rapid mobilization /////In Conquests view, the alienation distinctly increased before the wartime since many Russians started to hate Stalin for the misery he triggered; therefore it led to gradual decline in morale and discipline (Conquest, 1991: p. ). In case of Stalin, the propaganda tool was used to a limited extent and often in a wrong way. It is essential to mention that the widespread fear between the Russian population resulted in limited ability to believe Stalins promises and slogans. EVIDENCE !!!!!! ////Æ’Â  Additionally, it is vital to perceive that Hitlers leading effectiveness was mainly achieved by remarkable Nazi propaganda that enhance the popularity of policies that were genuinely popular, for instance, public works projects (autobahn) or the 1933 Farm Law assuring subsidies for farms. Whereas Stalins propaganda was directed at forming a measure of acceptance for politics that were quite undesirable, such as compulsory collectivization and rapid industrialization. [FOOTNOTES Æ’Â   EVIDENCE!!!!!] Unger Citation!!! _______________________________________________________ [7] According to historian Dick Geary, the Nazi propaganda was most successful: where it could play upon the traditional German prejudices and values of German middle-class society upon issues such as nationalism, anti-socialism, family issuesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (Geary, 1993: p. 59). [8] Evidence III: The Use of Terror and Violence The third crucial element related to Hitlers effective leadership is the use of terror and violence. Terroristic aspect of the two regimes appears to be very significant in order to compare the leadership qualities of Adolf Hitler and Joseph Stalin. Hitler seems to have had no deliberate policy of destabilization. In a sense, he tried to protect his deified leadership position by his non-bureaucratic and non-interventionist governance because he did not want to lose a popularity by deciding some unpopular policies. Furthermore, Hitler did not rule internally by terror even so his regime was deeply authoritarian and disciplinary. This means that his effectiveness based on the ability to maintain a supporting base of Nazi members in order to strengthen his own position but also to stabilize the party apparatus. However, with the exception of his purge of the Storm Trooper leadership on the Night of the Long Knives in 1934, Hitler never triggered a systematic attack on members of his ow n regime. However, It is important to note that Hitler never initiated an organized terror on members of his regime. It is significant to highlight that Hitler had his leadership position technically more secure than Stalin. On the other hand, Stalin personified the creature of bureaucracy therefore he appeared intentionally to destabilize government to turn this to his advantage; in the mid-1930s Stalin mainly instigated the liquidation of the kulaks as a class and great purges against his closest supporters in order to eliminate all challenges to his absolutistic rule but also he used the brutality of collectivization to infected the whole political system with the lust for blood and any criticism came to be identified with the sabotage of class enemies (Sakwa, 1998: p. 40). To a considerable extent, Stalins purges and the extensive use of terror and violence undermined the stability of his position and intensify his opposition within the Party sector (Kershaw, 1997: p. 93). However, it might be said that the use of purges represented a kind of weapon against the unstoppable power and expansion of Stalinist bureaucracy which seemed to malfunction. Also Stalins paranoid mentality resulted in unprecedent ed brutality used as an instrument for applying and implementing his policies and terrorizing his followers and Soviet citizens. Therefore he used purges and the Show Trials to remove Old Bolshevik rivals like Zinoniev and Kamenev, in order to destroy their reputation, so that he alone could take the credit for the Communist Partys achievements. Additionally, Steve Rosefielde argues that in the years 1929-38, the average Gulag forced labour population was about 8.8 million, and that the total adult losses attributable to forced labour, collectivization and the purges was over 20 million (Sakwa, 1998: p. 41). This, in fact, resulted in a greater alienation of masses and sustained the Soviet peoples sense of anxiety and feeling of helplessness thus they responded to Stalins force by self-control and dissimulation (Cassinelli, 1976: p. 129). Furthermore, the Purges disruptive effects were felt in the development of industry where the destruction of qualified engineers and managers seri ously undermined the Second Five Year Plan and accounts for Stalins reduction in the scale of the purges in 1939. Nonetheless the destructive policies penetrated through Stalins autocracy and the Soviet people felt perpetually insecure therefore this led to escalation of opposition between the Soviet citizens which had weakening effect on Stalins power. Evidence IV: The Major Economic Policies Another important factor that reflects Hitlers effective leadership is the series of economic policies implemented in 1930s. The main success of Hitlers economic recovery based on the total elimination of unemployment and on stabilization of German economy and progress towards an economy that would prepare Germany for war. For instance, Dr. Schacht organized Germanys finances to fund a huge programme of work creation; the increase in government spending (from RM 8.6 billion in 1932 to RM 29.3 billion by 1938) resulted in schemes to build a network of autobahns or conservation programmes. Moreover, Hitler concentrated on need to gear the economy for war It is important to highlight that Hitler was aware that he needed the support of the German people and could not risk to exacerbate their living standards at the cost of military supremacy. In 1930s, Hitler developed managed economy in Nazi Germany and in 1936 he focused on the Four Year Plan Æ’Â   autobahn completed, industry rebuilt, farmers: Blood and Soil, Workers: Strength Through Joy Æ’Â   Germany was a great economic power Stalin Æ’Â   unsuccessful FYPs collectivization and industrialization still backward- inability to catch up the West!! On the other hand, it might be argued that Stalins economic policies had only moderate short-term success. established the command economy [*9*] in the Soviet Union, clearly without this economic concept USSR would not survived. However, Stalins Five Year Plans were followed by forcible collectivization of the peasantry in order to erase all traces of capitalism and transform Soviet Union into fully industrialized, self-sufficient and completely socialist state without regard to cost. It is significant to point out that the effort to fulfill overambitious plans and resistance to collectivization led to acute shortage throughout the economy. It can be argued that despite the Stalin The top priority was investment in heavy industry which was view as the key to rapid economic growth and as an essential guarantee of national security. The acceleration continued through the Second Five Year Plan and extended into consumer goods. Against a background of a political purges and partial wartime mobilization, the pace of industrial growth slackened in the three years of the Third Five Year Plan, and such growth as took place may be attributed to territorial expansion. (p. 152-3) Falsification Æ’Â   It is vital to point out that Stalins leadership proved to be inefficient in terms of improving the Russian economy in the long run and great human expense. According to Isaac Deutscher, Stalins All-out Drive revolution from above appeared to be unsuccessful attempt to stimulate the production and increase the output because it lacked all rules of logic and principles of economies which were turned upside down (Cassinelli, 1976: p. 117). It is important to realize that Stalins economic policies were aimed at satisfying his own ideology rather than for benefit of people. This clearly supports the initial claim that Stalin was less effective leader than Hitler. _______________________________________________________ [*9*] Soviet planned or command economy was a type of economy in which centralized, bureaucratic management of economy, GOSPLAN, made a wide range of decisions penetrating to production and wages. Basically, the key objectives of centrally planned economy were to build socialism as quickly as possible and centralize the decision making and control. [10] In 1932, the number of unemployed in Germany was 5.6 million, however in 1938 there were only 0.2 unemployed in Nazi Germany. [EVIDENCE] Debate: Intentionalist view and Hitlers Effective Leadership Qualities Intentionalist view Æ’Â   Hitlers leadership domination and effectiveness was apparent in connection with [***]Hitlers dictatorship presented very extreme and intensive totalitarian demands of modern state, such as unexpected degree of violence and oppression, unprecedented manipulation of mass media to gain control and mobilize the masses, an unaccustomed cynicism in the international relations, an extraordinary aggression of nationalism and pestilent power of ideological racial superiority. Additionally, this specific dictatorship demonstrated that the modern, advanced and cultural society could fall headlong into barbarism. Indeed, Hitlers form of dictatorship meant the collapse of the modern civilization. On the other hand, Stalin personified a type of leader who focused on the continuity of Leninist tradition. By contrast, Stalin used hostility and terror as a normal feature of government when the USSR was in peace. His dictatorship resulted in creation of a personality cult of monstrous proportions but he never achieved a popular acceptance for his policies as Hitler did. ******It is vital to highlight that Hitler was more effective leader in terms of his cult of personality, propaganda and social and economic policies to 1941. This year represented a key turning point in Hitlers power and effectivity. Hitlers clash with Stalin indicated that the existing distribution of powerfulness was no longer able to outlast. It is very interesting to see the rapid transformation of power from Hitler to Stalin. Therefore it may be argued that, from the chronological perspective, Hitler was able to keep his authority at the highest position so his leadership skills were clearly better than Stalins abilities. Conclusion In conclusion, although Hitler signified a leader of one of the purest autocracies, there were some limits to his power, but it is essential to point out that these limits did not result from imperfections in his machinery of power but mainly from the context within which Hitler has to operate. However, Hitlers success might be apparent in regard to popular acceptance of his policies but also most Germans appreciated the sense of national community which was constantly instilled into them by Hitler. Furthermore, Hitlers long-lasting interest for the material-well being and social standing gave his regime a popular legitimacy that was one of the greatest success to his power. Security Management: Instant Messaging Perspective Security Management: Instant Messaging Perspective Executive Summary Nowadays, Instant messaging (IM) is used in the corporate environment which is rising rapidly, as organizations welcome to accept IM as a business communications tool. IM promotes cooperation and real-time communication among employees, business partners, and customers. It also brings new threats to local area network security and makes organizations to have a potential risks when employees share illegal or inappropriate content over the internet. Organizations are also faced with reduced employee productivity when IM is used arbitrarily and for personal communications. When use of IM is unmonitored and uncontrolled, it can lead to a significant drain on IT resources, as the IT staff attempt to identify which IM applications are being used and by whom. Moreover, when instant messaging is used to send and receive files, not only can the resulting drain on bandwidth negatively impact network performance, but the files themselves can pose a serious security threat. This report provides information to better understand threats of IM and mitigate its impact to business. The threats of IM are investigated. The trend in growing targets and number of cases are related to IM threats are analyzed. The impacts to business are assessed to identify areas of security management require great concern. Finally, measures are introduced to improve security management such that IM threats become manageable and their impact is reduced. 1. Introduction Today, Instant Messaging (IM) applications have rapidly become accepted by businesses as viable employee communications tools. IM is more instant than email, obviously easy-to-use, and provides the real-time collaboration organizations need to ensure quick judgments and decisions. Using Instant Messaging, organizations and their business partners can make a conference, share files and information easily over the Internet. Furthermore, within the organization, IM conversations among project team members can resolve issues and questions in an instantsomething that might have taken a series of emails, telephone calls, or face-to-face meetings to carry out. IM can be used to provide immediate replies to requests. It can also help promote personal relationships with customers and remote employees, and assist customers in completing transactions with Web-based businesses. This report is shown the concern of security of IM and gives some countermeasure to deal with IM threats. 2. Findings and Analysis 2.1 What threats are related to Instant Messaging? l   Worms A worm is a self-replicating computer program. It uses a network to send copies of itself to other nodes and it may do without any user participation. In case of instant messaging, antivirus software does not currently monitor traffic at OSI Model-network layer. If a worm starts to spread via instant messaging, it cannot be stopped before it reached the remotes computer. Dissimilar a virus, it does not need to attach itself to an existing application or program. Worm almost always causes damage to the network when it drains the network bandwidth. On the contrary, virus almost always corrupt or modify files on a targeted computer. The number of instant messaging worms is rising steadily. This is made clear when one considers the list of recent IM worms: n dubbed Pykse.A (16 April 2007) n W32/Rbot-GRS (26 June 2007) However, a few antivirus applications can plug in to instant messaging clients for scanning files when they are received. The lack of applications scanning instant messaging network traffic is partly due to the difficulty in monitoring instant messaging traffic so that the antivirus product running at the desktop level can catch the worms. l Backdoor Trojan Horses Instant messaging clients allow peer-to-peer file sharing, the instant messaging client to share all files on the system with full access to everyone can be configured by a Trojan Horse and in this way gain backdoor access to the computer. Moreover, the victim computer is on-line; a notification will be send to hacker automatically. So hacker can keeps track and accesses the infected computer easily. Besides, the hacker does not need to open new suspicious ports for communication in that hacker can instead use already open instant messaging ports. Classic backdoor trojans open an outgoing listening port on the computer, forming a connection with a remote machine. If the trojan operates via the instant messaging client, it does not open a new port as the user has usually already created an allow rule for instant messaging traffic to be outbound from their machine, therefore, allowing the backdoor trojan horse using the same channel to go unblocked. l Hijacking and Impersonation Users can be impersonated in many different ways by hacker. The most frequently used attack is solely stealing the account information of an unsuspecting user using the instant messaging or IRC application. Hacker can execute a password-stealing trojan horse to obtain the account information of a user. If the password for the instant messaging client is saved on the computer, the hacker could send a trojan to an unsuspecting user. When trojan executed, it would find the password for the instant messaging account used by the victim and send it back to the hacker. l Denial of Service Instant messaging may lead a computer vulnerable to denial of service (DoS) attacks. These attacks may have different outcomes: A lot of DoS attacks make the instant messaging client crash, hang, and in some cases consume a large amount of computer processing power and causing the entire computer to become unstable. There are many ways in which a hacker can cause a denial of service on an instant messenger client. Furthermore, they are used to combine with other attacks, such as the hijacking of a connection and form a bot network to attack other servers. l Unauthorized Disclosure of Information Information disclosure could occur without the use of a trojan horse. Once the data that is being transmitted via the instant messaging network is not encrypted, a network sniffer can sniff data on most types of networks and can be used to capture the instant messaging traffic. Also, a hacker could sniff the packets from an entire instant messaging session. It can be very dangerous as hacker may gain access to privileged information. It is especially dangerous in the corporate environment in that confidential information may be transmitted along the instant messaging network. 2.2 Recent Incidents Case 1: New IM worm targets Skype users (Published date: 17 Apr 2007) Affected: The IM worm affects Skype users running Windows. Threat Type: Worm Description: A new instant-messaging pest that spreads using the chat feature in Skype has surfaced, security firm F-Secure warned. The worm, dubbed Pykse.A, is similar to threats that affect instant-messaging applications. A targeted Skype user will receive a chat message with text and a Web link that looks like it goes to a JPEG file on a Web site, F-Secure said on its Web site. Clicking the link will redirect the user to a malicious file. The file, after executing, will send a malicious link to all online contacts in a Skype users list and will show a picture of a scantily clad woman, F-Secure said. In addition, it sets the users Skype status message to Do Not Disturb, the security firm said. Pykse also visits a number of Web sites that dont host any malicious code and a site that appears to count infected machines, F-Secure said. The Finnish security company doesnt list any particular malicious payload for Pykse other than it spreading and visiting Web sites. Status: Skype also recommends using antivirus software to check the files received from other people. Case 2: Next-generation Skype Trojan hits web (Published date: 26 Mar 2007) Affected: Warezov Trojan horse to target Skype users. Threat Type: Trojan Horse Description: Miscreants have again adapted the Warezov Trojan horse to target Skype users. The attack is similar to threats that target instant-messaging applications. A targeted Skype user will receive a chat message with the text Check up this and a link to a malicious executable called file_01.exe on a website. Once infected, a computer will be at the beck and call of the attacker and the Trojan horse will start sending messages to the victims Skype contacts to propagate. Status: Skype warned users against opening the malicious file, take caution in general when opening attachments, and also recommends using antivirus software to check incoming files. Case 3: AIM bot creates fight combos to spread (Published date: 18 Sep 2006) Affected: Online attackers have created an instant-messaging bot program for AOL instant messaging that chains together a number of executable files, similar to the combination moves in fight games. Threat type: Worm and Bot Description: The software, dubbed the AIM Pipeline worm, uses modular executable files to infect machines with different functionality but also to make the bot networks growth more robust: if a Web site hosting one of the components gets shutdown, the other pieces of the worm can still spread. Status: America Online has blocked the URLs used in the messages sent by the AIM Pipeline worm. 2.3 Trends l Increase in IM threats IM Security Center researchers tracked 33 malicious code attacks over IM networks during the month of September, bringing the 2007 total to 297. This is a 20% increase in IM threats compared with the same time period last year. (SAN DIEGO Akonix Systems, Inc 2007) Research also indicates that there are more targets affected by IM threats (SANS Institute 2006) l New type of IM worms New IM worms identified include Agent-GCG, Ataxbot, Exploit-VcardGadget, Focelto, MSNFunny, IMBot, MsnSend, MSN-WhoBlocked, Neeris, Pykse, Skipi, STRATION and Yalove. IRCBot was the most common with four variants, followed by Imaut and Neeris with two, respectively. Akonix tracked 16 attacks on P2P networks, such as Kazaa and eDonkey (SAN DIEGO Akonix Systems, Inc) l Evolution of IM threats The vulnerability of IM are used in botnet communication and spread the bot and worms to another computers. When the hacker send the command to botnet army, the consequence of attacks is very serious. Unlike other attacks, botnet can comprised of thousands of computer power to perform a variety of attacks against a wide range target. For example, the botmaster can command each zombie participant in a botnet to launch spamming e-mails to steal the credit card information and launch Distributed Denial-of-Service (DDoS) attacks simultaneously against the thousands of computer. 2.4 Factors for growth of IM threats The growth of instant messaging usage within the organization, vulnerabilities in public IM networks occur during the process of transferring files. When a user transfers files or uses other IM features like file sharing or voice chat, users IP address is revealed. Using this IP address, hackers can have ability to attack the system. Some organizations configure their firewalls to block ports used by IM applications or block the external addresses of IM network servers. But IM applications can be configured to change ports automatically and are capable of penetrating firewalls through ports used by other applications. (For example: port 80). So policy control management is required. 3. Impact to Business Once the IM threats occur in the organizations, they face a significant security risk from disclosure of intellectual property or business-critical information using IMs file attachment capability. As IM is a highly informal means of communication, employees can unintentionally send critical company-confidential information, such as product specifications, code, and blueprints, or private customer data, to friends, colleagues, and competitors. There are three main concerns of using the IM which are identified. l Legal Liability concerns The danger of allowing employees to use IM at work under lacking of security management, the viruses and worms is very easy to expose. On the other hand, organizations face legal and compliance risks when employees share copyrighted, illegal, or inappropriate content via instant messaging. Unmonitored IM applications allow employees to openly transfer files and information that could lead to significant corporate liability. For example, transferring copyrighted MP3 files, movies, and software using IM is common among friends and bypasses the file size restrictions of email. l Employee productivity loss Many employees have already adopted IM which they prefer that IM is regarded as the personal connection with friends of family, because it has not used the telephone to be obvious, talking cant be eavesdropped. Employees can seem it is work, in their keyboard is typed and left, been exchanging the personal connection with friends of family all the time. l IT resource abuse Most organizations dont know what kind of IM should be installed on computer, which employees should use the IM and how often to use IM for business communication such as send, receive files, video conferencing. In addition, it is not uncommon for intensive file sharing over the IM that can influence the performance of the network. 4. Dealing with Instant Messaging threats IM threats can be operated by insider (employees) and outsider (hacker). According to the Figure 4-1, Operational-level employees want to increase their ability to override controls mechanisms base on some factors such as fear of lose their job whereas the top level-manger want to have control mechanism to monitor all harmful activity in the organization. However, top level-mangers always neglect the risk of middle-level managers whose have part of administrative power to act as insider. So that good security management must be executed in the organization to avoid or mitigate the insider and outsider activities. Consequently, prevention, detection, incident response and controls are good measures for security management. 4.1 Prevention Ensure that vendor patches are promptly applied to instant messaging software, interrelated applications, and the underlying operating system. Firewalls to separate all DMZs, internal networks and external un-trusted networks Monitor using an Intrusion Detection/ Prevention system for users. Create secure communications channel when using instant messaging with trusted business partners Do not rely on external IM servers for internal use of instant messaging. Install and use anti-virus and anti-spyware applications. Consider disposing the clear products designed for instant messaging safely. Some product like as Trend Micro IM Security for Microsoft Office and Symantec IM Manager 2007 seamlessly manages can be used for mitigation of the potential risks associated in that they acts a filter and detector between internal and external. Using Multi-factors authentication or biometric authentication to prevent the hacker to login the target computers. 4.2 Detection Monitor and detect using an Intrusion Detection for users creating tunnels for instant messaging. An intrusion detection system (IDS) generally detects unwanted manipulations of computer systems, mainly through the Internet. Enable the auto detect mode of updated antivirus and anti-spyware products for client computer. Filter all http traffic through an authenticating proxy server or firewall to provide additional capabilities of filtering or monitoring instant messaging traffic. Appropriately configure intrusion detection systems. Understand that many instant messaging applications are capable of enabling associated communications to masquerade as otherwise allowed traffic (e.g. http). 4.3 Incident Response Block popular instant messaging ports. Block access to known public instant messaging servers that have not been explicitly authorized. Virus-scanning software at all critical entry points such as firewalls, remote access server, e-mail servers etc. Ensure that vendor patches are promptly applied to instant messaging software, interrelated applications, and the underlying operating system. 4.4 Management Policy Controls Establish policies for acceptable use of instant messaging and ensure that all users are aware of those policies and clearly understand the potential risks. General users should not be allowed to install software. Limit Administrative and Power User level privileges to support personnel with their support ability. If a user must have Administrative or Power User privileges, create a separate account to be used for their daily office functions, internet surfing and on-line communication. 5. Conclusion Instant messaging has clearly taken off as a means of communication. The ability to communicate in real-time makes it an ideal medium for both business and personal communication. Unfortunately, threats that affect instant messaging already exist today, including worms and vulnerabilities that can give hackers remote access to vulnerable computers and can replicate in seconds can affect more than just instant messaging. Therefore, end users and corporations should employ basic security countermeasure. However, update the patch of product can mitigate the occurrence of threats, but these measures are not enough to prevent the network security. Corporations should have other measures for security such as prevention, detection and incident response. Furthermore, management controls are available to less the impact of IM threats. Once these measures get implement, IM threats must become manageable as a result of reducing the damage of business. References Michael E. Whitman and Herbert J. 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