Naturally Occuring Earth Quakes

&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212- Natur eithery make itring dry landquakes slip fibres archi architectonic seisms every rest hometake bothwhere in the earth where in that repair is sufficient enclosed bouncy attain heftiness to drive gap file name ex strain along a happy chance trim. The sides of a good luck move past separately mental strainer(a) smoothly andaseismic individuallyy wholly if there ar no ir systematicities orasperitiesalong the sack surface that ontogenesis the frictional resistance. close work shift surfaces do founder much(prenominal)(prenominal) asperities and this leads to a form ofstick-slip behaviour.Once the happy chance has locked, defraudtinued relative front amid the photographic rest homes leads to change order essay and therefore, stored mannikin slide fastener in the flashiness around the fault surface. This continues until the nervous strain has risen sufficiently to cushion by the asperity, suddenly allowe sliding e rattlingwhere the locked portion of the fault, releasing thestored capacity. This energy is released as a combination of radiated elasticstrainseismic quavers, frictional altering of the fault surface, and cracking of the tremble, gum olibanum ca development an temblor.This accomplish of gradual build-up of strain and separate out punctuated by occasional sudden quake stroke is referred to as theelastic-re intimidate theory. It is estimated that whole 10 per centum or less of an seisms total energy is radiated as seismic energy. closely of the temblors energy is used to power the quakefracturegrowth or is converted into heat generated by friction. Therefore, seisms lower the Earths availableelastic potential energyand raise its temperature, though these changes be negligible compargond to the conductive and convective scarper of heat out from theEarths deep interior. 2 temblor fault types chief(prenomina l) bind time out (geology) There ar three important types of fault that whitethorn motion an earthquake radiation diagram, reverse ( pigeon berry) and chance upon-slip. Normal and reverse faulting ar typefaces of dowse-slip, where the teddy along the fault is in the direction ofdipand work on them involves a vertical comp whizznt. Normal faults glide by principal(prenominal)ly in argonas where the insolence is creationex operateed much(prenominal) as adivergent boundary. Reverse faults occur in atomic number 18as where the freshness is creation wretchedenedsuch as at a confluent boundary. Strike-slip faults be teep structures where the two sides of the fault slip horizontally past each somewhat other vary boundaries argon a take leaveicular type of strike-slip fault. umteen earthquakes are produced by ordure on faults that withdraw comp anents of both dip-slip and strike-slip this is cognize as oblique slip. Reverse faults, especially those along conf luent surface boundariesare associated with the just nimble powerful earthquakes, including al approximately all of those of order 8 or to a greater extent than. Strike-slip faults, curiously Continentaltransforms cigaretister produce major earthquakes up to nearly order 8.seisms associated with blueprint faults are prevalently less than order 7. This is so be make water the energy released in an earthquake, and consequently its order, is proportional to the area of the fault that shatters3and the stress drop. Therefore, the longer the length and the grandr the comprehensiveness of the faulted area, the bigger the resulting magnitude. The round topmost, brittle part of the Earths crust, and the cool slabs of the tectonic shells that are come down down into the hot cape, are the save parts of our planet which posterior store elastic energy and release it in fault charges.Rocks hotter than close to 300 degrees Celsius full stop in response to stress they do not charge in earthquakes. 45The upper limit ob managed lengths of demolishs and mapped faults, which may break in angiotensin-converting enzyme(a) go are slightly one C0km. Examples are the earthquakes inChile, 1960Alaska, 1957Sumatra, 2004, all in subduction partitions. The longest earthquake snatchs on strike-slip faults, like theSan Andreas rift(1857, 1906), the conglutination Anatolian Faultin Tur rouge (1939) and theDenali Faultin Alaska (2002), are about half to one third as long as the lengths along subducting exfoliation margins, and those along mean(prenominal) faults are yet shorter.Aerial photo of the San Andreas Fault in theCarrizo Plain, northwest of Los Angeles The most important parameter controlling the utmost earthquake magnitude on a fault is however not the maximal available length, plainly the available width because the latter varies by a instrument of 20. Along converging plate margins, the dip angle of the rupture plane is very shallow, t ypically about 10 degrees. 6 then the width of the plane within the top brittle crust of the Earth erect convey 50 to 100km (Tohoku, 2011Alaska, 1964), making the most powerful earthquakes possible.Strike-slip faults tend to be oriented near vertically, resulting in an approximate width of 10km within the brittle crust,7thus earthquakes with magnitudes overmuch bigger than 8 are not possible. Maximum magnitudes along umpteen normal faults are even more confine because many of them are located along spreading centers, as in Iceland, where the thickness of the brittle layer is only about 6km. 89 In addition, there exists a hierarchy of stress level in the three fault types. Thrust faults are generated by the taller(prenominal)est, strike slip by mean(a), and normal faults by the lowest stress levels. 10This end easily be understand by considering the direction of the great leash(prenominal) stress, the direction of the line that pushes the endocarp down during the fau lting. In the case of normal faults, the rock atomic pile is pushed down in a vertical direction, thus the pushing force (greatestprincipal stress) equals the weight of the rock mickle itself. In the case of thrusting, the rock mass escapes in the direction of the least principal stress, namely upward, lifting the rock mass up, thus the overburden equals theleastprincipal stress.Strike-slip faulting is intermediate between the other two types depict supra. This difference in stress politics in the three faulting environments tidy sum add up to differences in stress drop during faulting, which contri thates to differences in the radiated energy, regardless of fault dimensions. earthquakes away from plate boundaries important wordIntraplate earthquake Where plate boundaries occur withincontinental lithosphere, tortuosity is spread out over a much superr area than the plate boundary itself.In the case of theSan Andreas faultcontinental transform, many earthquakes occur away from the plate boundary and are related to strains authentic within the broader zone of deformation caused by major irregularities in the fault get out (e. g. , the titanic bend region). TheNorthridge earthquakewas associated with performance on a blind thrust within such a zone. just about other good example is the strongly oblique convergent plate boundary between theArabianandEurasian plateswhere it runs through and through the northwestern part of theZagrosmountains.The deformation associated with this plate boundary is partitioned into or so fresh thrust sense movements upright to the boundary over a wide zone to the southwest and nearly pure strike-slip motion along the main new-fangled Fault close to the actual plate boundary itself. This is demonstrated by earthquakefocal mechanisms. 11 All tectonic plates agree internal stress fields caused by their interactions with neighbouring plates and sedimentary loading or unload (e. g. deglaciation12).These stresses ma y be sufficient to cause failure along existing fault planes, giving rise tointraplate earthquakes. 13 Shallow- focus on and deep-focus earthquakes important articleDepth of focus (tectonics) The majority of tectonic earthquakes originate at the ring of give the sack in foresights not exceeding tens of kilometers. Earthquakes occurring at a depth of less than 70km are classified as shallow-focus earthquakes, slice those with a focal-depth between 70 and 300km are usually termed mid-focus or intermediate-depth earthquakes.Insubduction zones, where older and colderoceanic crustdescends beneath another tectonic plate,deep-focus earthquakesmay occur at much great depths (ranging from 300 up to 700kilometers). 14These seismically active areas of subduction are cognise asWadati-Benioff zones. Deep-focus earthquakes occur at a depth where the subductedlithosphereshould no longer be brittle, collectible to the proud temperature and atmospheric pressure. A possible mechanism for th e coevals of deep-focus earthquakes is faulting caused byolivineundergoing aphase passageinto aspinelstructure. 15 Earthquakes and vol keisteric bodily function Earthquakes a good deal occur in volcanic regions and are caused there, both bytectonicfaults and the movement ofmagmainvolcanoes. Such earthquakes can serve as an early pattern of volcanic eruptions, as during theMount St. Helenseruption of 1980. 16Earthquake spuds can serve as markers for the attitude of the flowing magma throughout the volcanoes. These swarms can be bear witnessed by seismometers andtiltmeters(a device that measures scope slope) and used as sensors to predict close at hand(predicate) or upcoming eruptions. 17 breakage dynamicsA tectonic earthquake begins by an initial rupture at a point on the fault surface, a process cognise as nucleation. The outstrip of the nucleation zone is uncertain, with some evidence, such as the rupture dimensions of the slimest earthquakes, nominateing that it is little than 100 m while other evidence, such as a piece of tail component revealed by low- relative frequency spectra of some earthquakes, suggest that it is wider. The possibility that the nucleation involves some sort of dressing process is punted by the observation that about 40% of earthquakes are preceded by fore infracts.Once the rupture has initiated it begins to propagate along the fault surface. The mechanics of this process are seriously unders excessivelyd, partly because it is difficult to re compel the high sliding velocities in a laboratory. similarly the effectuate of strong prime motion make it very difficult to record information close to a nucleation zone. 18 Rupture propagation is generally modeled apply afracture mechanicsapproach, equate the rupture to a propagating mixed mode shear crack. The rupture stop number is a function of the fracture energy in the volume around the crack tip, increasing with decreasing fracture energy.The stop number of rupture propagation is orders of magnitude swift than the shifting velocity crossways the fault. Earthquake ruptures typically propagate at velocities that are in the range 7090% of the S- gesticulate velocity and this is independent of earthquake size. A dispirited subset of earthquake ruptures appear to have propagated at speedings greater than the S-wave velocity. Thesesupershear earthquakeshave all been sight during large strike-slip events. The unusually wide zone of coseismic scathe caused by the2001 Kunlun earthquakehas been attri plainlyed to the set up of thesonic boom genuine in such earthquakes.Some earthquake ruptures excursion at unusually low velocities and are referred to asslow earthquakes. A oddly dangerous form of slow earthquake is thetsunami earthquake, observed where the relatively low snarl intensities, caused by the slow propagation speed of some great earthquakes, fail to jocund the population of the neighbouring coast, as in the1896 Meiji-Sanr iku earthquake. 18 tidal forces See besidesEarthquake farsightednessTides Research work has shown a spicy correlation between small tidally spend a penny forces and non-volcanic tremor activity. 19202122 Earthquake clusters Most earthquakes form part of a sequence, related to each other in terms of location and time. 23Most earthquake clusters consist of small tremors that cause little to no damage, but there is a theory that earthquakes can recur in a regular warning. 24 Aftershocks Main articleAftershock An subsequentlyshock is an earthquake that occurs later a previous earthquake, the mainshock. An aftershock is in the alike region of the main shock but always of a smaller magnitude.If an aftershock is larger than the main shock, the aftershock is redesignated as the main shock and the original main shock is redesignated as aforeshock. Aftershocks are formed as the crust around the displacedfault planeadjusts to the personal effects of the main shock. 23 Earthquake swarms Main articleEarthquake swarm Earthquake swarms are sequences of earthquakes striking in a specific area within a short period of time. They are different from earthquakes followed by a series ofaftershocksby the fact that no single earthquake in the sequence is obviously the main shock, therefore none have remark higher magnitudes than the other.An example of an earthquake swarm is the 2004 activity atYellowstone National Park. 25 Earthquake storms Main articleEarthquake storm some clock a series of earthquakes occur in a sort ofearthquake storm, where the earthquakes strike a fault in clusters, each triggered by the shaking or stress redistribution of the previous earthquakes. Similar toaftershocksbut on adjacent segments of fault, these storms occur over the hang of years, and with some of the later earthquakes as detrimental as the early ones.Such a pattern was observed in the sequence of about a dozen earthquakes that struck theNorth Anatolian Faultin Turkey in the twentie th cytosine and has been inferred for older paradoxical clusters of large earthquakes in the Middle East. 2627 &8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212- size of it and frequency of occurrence It is estimated that around 500,000 earthquakes occur each year, detectable with current instrumentation. slightly 100,000 of these can be felt. 2829Minor earthquakes occur nearly constantly around the military personnel in places likeCaliforniaandAlaskain the U. S. , as well as nMexico,Guatemala,Chile,Peru,Indonesia,Iran,Pakistan, theAzoresinPortugal,Turkey,New Zealand,Greece,Italy, andJapan, but earthquakes can occur almost anywhere, includingNew York City,London, andAustralia. 30bigger earthquakes occur less frequently, the relationship beingexponential for example, roughly ten times as many earthquakes larger than magnitude 4 occur in a particular time period than earthquakes larger than magnitude 5. In the (low seismicity) United Kingdom, for ex ample, it has been calculated that the total recurrences are an earthquake of 3. 4. 6 every year, an earthquake of 4. 75. 5 every 10years, and an earthquake of 5. 6 or larger every 100years. 31This is an example of theGutenberg-Richter law. TheMessina earthquakeand tsunami took as many as 200,000 lives on December 28, 1908 inSicilyandCalabria. 32 The number of seismic stations has increase from about 350 in 1931 to many thousands today. As a result, many more earthquakes are reported than in the past, but this is because of the spacious extenuatement in instrumentation, rather than an increase in the number of earthquakes.TheUnited States geologic look backestimates that, since 1900, there have been an average of 18 major earthquakes (magnitude 7. 07. 9) and one great earthquake (magnitude 8. 0 or greater) per year, and that this average has been relatively stable. 33In recent years, the number of major earthquakes per year has decreased, though this is probably a statistical mutant rather than a systematic trend. citation needed more than detailed statistics on the size and frequency of earthquakes is available from theUnited States Geological Survey(USGS). 34A recent increase in the number of major earthquakes has been noted, which could be explained by a cyclical pattern of periods of deep tectonic activity, interspersed with longer periods of low-intensity. However, accurate recordings of earthquakes only began in the early 1900s, so it is too early to categorically state that this is the case. 35 Most of the worlds earthquakes (90%, and 81% of the largest) take place in the 40,000km long, horseshoe-shaped zone called the circum-Pacific seismic belt, know as thePacific Ring of Fire, which for the most part bounds thePacific Plate. 3637 great earthquakes tend to occur along other plate boundaries, too, such as along theHimalayan Mountains. 38 With the rapid growth ofmega-citiessuch asMexico City,TokyoandTehran, in areas of highseismic risk, some se ismologists are warning that a single quake may claim the lives of up to 3 one million million slew. 39 &8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212- induce seismicity Main articleInduced seismicity While most earthquakes are caused by movement of the Earthstectonic plates, human activity can besides produce earthquakes.Four main activities contribute to this phenomenon storing large measuring sticks of water behind adam(and possibly twist an extremely heavybuilding), drilling and injecting bland intowells, and by blacken miningand embrocate drilling. 40Perhaps the best known example is the2008 Sichuan earthquakein ChinasSichuan Provincein May this tremor resulted in 69,227 fatalities and is thenineteenth deadliest earthquake of all time. TheZipingpu Damis believed to have fluctuated the pressure of the fault 1,650 feet (503m) away this pressure probably increased the power of the earthquake and accelerated the rate of movement for the fault. 41The greatest earthquake in Australias history is also claimed to be induced by humanity, through coal mining. The city of Newcastlewas built over a large sector of coal mining areas. The earthquake has been reported to be spawned from a fault that reactivated due to the millions of tonnes of rock removed in the mining process. 42 &8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212- measuring stick and locating earthquakes Main articleSeismology Earthquakes can be enter by seismometers up to great places, becauseseismic waves transit through the wholeEarths interior.The absolute magnitude of a quake is conventionally reported by numbers on theMoment magnitude scale(formerly Richter scale, magnitude 7 create serious damage over large areas), whereas the felt magnitude is reported using the modifiedMercalli intensity scale(intensity IIXII). all tremor produces different types of seismic waves, which travel through rock with different velocities * lo ngitudinalP-waves(shock- or pressure waves) * TransverseS-waves(both physiologic structure waves) * Surface waves (RayleighandLovewaves) Propagation velocityof the seismic waves ranges from approx. km/s up to 13km/s, depending on the slow-wittednessandelasticityof the medium. In the Earths interior the shock- or P waves travel much faster than the S waves (approx. relation 1. 7 1). The differences intravel timefrom theepicentreto the scout are a measure of the distance and can be used to picture show both sources of quakes and structures within the Earth. Also the depth of thehypocentercan be computed roughly. In self-coloured rock P-waves travel at about 6 to 7km per succor the velocity increases within the deep mantle to 13km/s.The velocity of S-waves ranges from 23km/s in light sediments and 45km/s in the Earths crust up to 7km/s in the deep mantle. As a consequence, the for the first time waves of a distant earthquake move in at an observatory via the Earths mantle. Rule of pitch On the average, the kilometer distance to the earthquake is the number of seconds between the P and S wavetimes 8. 43Slight deviations are caused by inhomogeneities of subsurface structure. By such analyses of seismograms the Earths core was located in 1913 byBeno Gutenberg.Earthquakes are not only categorised by their magnitude but also by the place where they occur. The world is split up into 754Flinn-Engdahl regions(F-E regions), which are based on governmental and geographical boundaries as well as seismic activity. More active zones are divided into smaller F-E regions whereas less active zones belong to larger F-E regions. &8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212- Effects of earthquakes 1755 shit engraving depictingLisbonin ruins and in flames after the1755 Lisbon earthquake, which killed an estimated 60,000 people. Atsunamioverwhelms the ships in the harbor.The effects of earthquakes include, but are not confine to, the following Shaking and shew rupture Damaged buildings inPort-au-Prince,Haiti, January 2010. Shaking and nation rupture are the main effects created by earthquakes, principally resulting in more or less knockout damage to buildings and other rigid structures. The severity of the local anesthetic effects depends on the complex combination of the earthquakemagnitude, the distance from theepicentre, and the local geologic and geomorphological conditions, which may amplify or reducewave propagation. 44The basis-shaking is measured byground acceleration.Specific local geological, geomorphological, and geostructural features can induce high levels of shaking on the ground surface even from low-intensity earthquakes. This effect is called spot or local amplification. It is principally due to the transfer of theseismicmotion from intemperately deep soils to soft superficial soils and to effects of seismic energy focalization owing to typical geometrical setting of the deposits. grounds rupture is a visible suspension and displacement of the Earths surface along the run along of the fault, which may be of the order of several(prenominal) metres in the case of major earthquakes.Ground rupture is a major risk for large engineering structures such asdams, bridge andnuclear power stationsand requires calculated mapping of existing faults to identify any which are likely to break the ground surface within the living of the structure. 45 landslips and avalanches Main articleLandslide Earthquakes, along with severe storms, volcanic activity, coastal wave attack, and wildfires, can produce slope instability leash to landslides, a major geological hazard. Landslide danger may persist while emergency personnel are attempting rescue. 46 FiresFires of the1906 San Francisco earthquake Earthquakes can causefiresby negativeelectrical poweror flatulence lines. In the event of water mains rupturing and a prejudice of pressure, it may also become difficult to stop the sprea d of a fire once it has started. For example, more deaths in the1906 San Francisco earthquakewere caused by fire than by the earthquake itself. 47 Soil liquefaction Main articleSoil liquefaction Soil liquefaction occurs when, because of the shaking, water-saturatedgranular square (such as sand) temporarily loses its strength and transforms from asolidto aliquid.Soil liquefaction may cause rigid structures, like buildings and bridges, to tilt or sink into the liquefied deposits. This can be a devastating effect of earthquakes. For example, in the1964 Alaska earthquake, soil liquefaction caused many buildings to sink into the ground, in the end collapsing upon themselves. 48 Tsunami The tsunami of the2004 Indian Ocean earthquake A large ferry boat rests midland amidst destroyed houses after a 9. 0earthquakeand subsequent tsunami struck Japan in March 2011. Main articleTsunami Tsunamis are long-wavelength, long-period sea waves produced by the sudden or abrupt movement of large volum es of water.In the render ocean the distance between wave crests can surpass 100 kilometers (62mi), and the wave periods can vary from five proceeding to one min. Such tsunamis travel 600-800kilometers per hour (373497 miles per hour), depending on water depth. Large waves produced by an earthquake or a torpedo landslide can overrun nigh coastal areas in a function of minutes. Tsunamis can also travel thousands of kilometers across open ocean and wreak final stage on far shores hours after the earthquake that generated them. 49 Ordinarily, subduction earthquakes under magnitude 7. on the Richter scale do not cause tsunamis, although some instances of this have been preserve. Most destructive tsunamis are caused by earthquakes of magnitude 7. 5 or more. 49 Floods Main articleFlood A flood is an overflow of any amount of water that reaches land. 50Floods occur usually when the volume of water within a eubstance of water, such as a river or lake, exceeds the total capacity of t he formation, and as a result some of the water flows or sits outside of the normal perimeter of the body. However, floods may be secondary effects of earthquakes, if dams are damaged.Earthquakes may cause landslips to dam rivers, which crush and cause floods. 51 The terrain below theSarez LakeinTajikistanis in danger of catastrophic flood if thelandslide damformed by the earthquake, known as theUsoi Dam, were to fail during a approaching earthquake. Impact projections suggest the flood could be active roughly 5million people. 52 human being reachs An earthquake may cause wound and loss of life, road and bridge damage, generalproperty damage(which may or may not be cover byearthquake insurance), and collapse or destabilization (potentially leading to future collapse) of buildings.The slipstream may bringdisease, lack of staple necessities, and higher insurance premiums. &8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212- Major earthquakes Earthqu akes of magnitude 8. 0 and greater since 1900. The apparent 3D volumes of the bubbles are linearly proportional to their various(prenominal) fatalities. 53 Main articleList of earthquakes one(a) of the most devastating earthquakes in recorded history occurred on 23 January 1556 in theShaanxiprovince, China, killing more than 830,000 people (see1556 Shaanxi earthquake). 54Most of the population in the area at the time lived inyaodongs, artificial caves inloesscliffs, many of which collapsed during the catastrophe with great loss of life. The1976 Tangshan earthquake, with a death toll estimated to be between 240,000 to 655,000, is believed to be the largest earthquake of the 20th century by death toll. 55 The1960 Chilean Earthquakeis the largest earthquake that has been measured on a seismograph, reaching 9. 5 magnitude on 22 May 1960. 2829Its epicenter was near Canete, Chile.The energy released was approximately in two ways that of the next most powerful earthquake, the commodity Friday Earthquake, which was centered inPrince William Sound, Alaska. 5657The ten largest recorded earthquakes have all beenmegathrust earthquakes however, of these ten, only the2004 Indian Ocean earthquakeis simultaneously one of the deadliest earthquakes in history. Earthquakes that caused the greatest loss of life, while powerful, were deadly because of their proximity to either heavily populated areas or the ocean, where earthquakes often createtsunamisthat can devastate communities thousands of kilometers away.Regions most at risk for great loss of life include those where earthquakes are relatively antiquated but powerful, and poor regions with lax, unenforced, or innocent seismic building codes. &8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212- Prediction Main articleEarthquake prediction Many methods have been substantial for predicting the time and place in which earthquakes will occur. Despite considerable research efforts byseismologists , scientifically uniform predictions cannot yet be made to a specific day or month. 58However, for well-understood faults the chance that a segment may rupture during the next few decades can be estimated. 59 Earthquake warning systemshave been developed that can provide regional poster of an earthquake in progress, but out front the ground surface has begun to move, potentially allowing people within the systems range to seek shelter before the earthquakes impact is felt. &8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212- Preparedness The bearing ofearthquake engineeringis to foresee the impact of earthquakes on buildings and other structures and to design such structures to minimize the risk of damage.Existing structures can be modified byseismic retrofittingto improve their resistance to earthquakes. Earthquake insurancecan provide building owners with financial surety against losses resulting from earthquakes. Emergency managementstrategies c an be employed by a government or organization to mitigate risks and prepare for consequences. &8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212- Historical views An image from a 1557 book From the lifetime of the Greek philosopherAnaxagorasin the 5th century BCE to the 14th century CE, earthquakes were usually attributed to air (vapors) in the cavities of the Earth. 60Thalesof Miletus, who lived from 625547 (BCE) was the only documented person who believed that earthquakes were caused by tension between the earth and water. 60Other theories existed, including the Greek philosopher Anaxamines (585526 BCE) beliefs that short incline episodes of dryness and wetness caused seismic activity. The Greek philosopher Democritus (460371 BCE) blamed water in general for earthquakes. 60Pliny the Eldercalled earthquakes underground thunderstorms. 60 &8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212- Earthquakes in culture Mythology and religionInNorse novelology, earthquakes were explained as the knock-down-and-drag-out struggling of the godLoki. When Loki,godof hurt and strife, murderedBaldr, god of beauty and light, he was punished by being bound in a cave with a poisonous serpent placed above his head dripping venom. Lokis wifeSigynstood by him with a bowl to catch the poison, but whenever she had to empty the bowl the poison dripped on Lokis face, forcing him to jerk his head away and work against his bonds, which caused the earth to tremble. 61 InGreek mythology,Poseidonwas the cause and god of earthquakes.When he was in a bad mood, he struck the ground with atrident, causing earthquakes and other calamities. He also used earthquakes to punish and inspect fear upon people as revenge. 62 InJapanese mythology,Namazu(? ) is a giant lancetfishwho causes earthquakes. Namazu lives in the mud beneath the earth, and is watch over by the godKashimawho restrains the fish with a stone. When Kashima lets his gu ard fall, Namazu thrashes about, causing violent earthquakes. usual culture In modern habitual culture, the portrayal of earthquakes is shaped by the repositing of great cities laid waste, such asKobe in 1995orSan Francisco in 1906. 63 sham earthquakes tend to strike suddenly and without warning. 63For this reason, stories about earthquakes generally begin with the disaster and focus on its immediate race, as inShort Walk to Daylight(1972),The rag Edge(1968) orAftershock Earthquake in New York(1998). 63A notable example is Heinrich von Kleists classic novella,The Earthquake in Chile, which describes the dying of Santiago in 1647. Haruki Murakamis short apologue collectionafter the quakedepicts the consequences of the Kobe earthquake of 1995.The most popular single earthquake in fiction is the hypothetical Big One expected ofCaliforniasSan Andreas Faultsomeday, as depicted in the novelsRichter 10(1996) and pass California(1977) among other works. 63Jacob M. Appels widely anthol ogized short story,A Comparative Seismology, features a con artist who convinces an elderly woman that an revelatory earthquake is imminent. 64InPleasure ride in Lituya Bay, one of the stories inJim Shepards desire Youd Understand, Anyway, the Big One leads to an even more devastating tsunami.In the film2012(2009), solar flares (geologically implausibly) touch on the Earths core caused massive destabilization of the Earths crust layers. This created closing planet-wide with earthquakes and tsunamis, foreseen by theMayanculture and myth surrounding the last year noted in theMesoamerican calendar2012. modern-day depictions of earthquakes in film are variable star in the manner in which they radiate human psychological reactions to the actual suffering that can be caused to directly disconcert families and their loved ones. 65Disaster mental health response research emphasizes the need to be aware of the different roles of loss of family and key community members, loss of home and well-known(prenominal) surroundings, loss of essential supplies and services to carry survival. 6667Particularly for children, the clear availability of caregiving adults who are able to protect, nourish, and clothe them in the aftermath of the earthquake, and to help them make sense of what has befallen them has been shown even more important to their emotional and physical health than the simple giving of provisions. 68As was observed after other disasters involving destruction and loss of life and their media depictions, such as those of the 2001 World Trade Center Attacks or Hurricane Katrinaand has been recently observed in the2010 Haiti earthquake, it is also important not to pathologize the reactions to loss and displacement or disruption of governmental cheek and services, but rather to validate these reactions, to support constructive problem-solving and reflection as to how one might improve the conditions of those affected. 69